ABSTRACT

As the world battled with the Covid’19 pandemic, there were reported evidence of sharp rise in domestic violence during lockdown and these had life threatening consequences for both women and men. However, the problem of domestic violence was not only affected by the presence of the man, the woman and children, but also by the ever-encroaching presence of the extended family members and the whole community at large. This had affected people in different ways: socially, linguistically and culturally. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the reporting of domestic violence stories in Nigerian Newspapers. The focus is on the pragmatic dimension of the stories. Austin’s Speech Acts theory and the Grice’s principles were used as the theoretical framework. For natural and authentic research, different short stories of domestic violence from Nigerian daily media prints were studied and analyzed. The data comprised newspapers stories and extracts isolated for analysis at the level of pragmatics. In all, fifteen domestic violence stories were purposively selected from Nigerian Guardian and Nation newspapers and were analyzed using qualitative design method. Findings from the study showed that the application of pragmatic analysis in studying language use in the context of domestic violence has revealed that there are various intricate dynamics that need to be understood and addressed for proper understanding of the issues in the context of Nigerian society. The study further revealed that linguistic behaviors should not be overlooked through pragmatic analysis, there is a deeper understanding of how language is used to manipulate, control and silence victims of domestic violence and showed that the examination of linguistic features such as implicature, inference, politeness, speech act and presupposition provides insights into how abusers use language to perpetrate violence and how victims use language to resist, conceal, or seek help. In addition, more findings showed that, pragmatic approaches make contributions to knowledge; they are indispensable as a functional and sociolinguistic element in the analysis of newspaper media in Nigeria. That also, it is imperative that Pragmatic approaches make contributions to knowledge; they are indispensable as functional and sociolinguistic elements in the analysis of newspaper media in Nigeria. This study recommended that, there should be more insight into the language and communication strategies used by journalists in addressing the issue of domestic violence context in Nigerian society. The study further recommended that, there should be a great significance and influence to linguists in the area of functional linguistic and pragmatic, to the lecturers and students in English language. School administrators and stakeholders in education. The study concluded that, the application of pragmatic analysis in the study of language use in context of domestic violence indicted that various intricate dynamic need to be addressed for proper understanding of the issues in context of Nigerian society. In addition, the study concluded that, with the use of pragmatic in analysis, there is a deeper understanding of how language is used to manipulate, control and silence victims of domestic violence and showed that the examination of linguistic features such as implicature, inference, politeness, speech act and presupposition provides insights into how abusers use language to perpetrate violence and how victims use language to resist, conceal, or seek help. This study finally concluded that pragmatic approaches make contributions to knowledge; they are indispensable as a functional and sociolinguistic element in the analysis of newspaper media in Nigeria.

Keywords: Pragmatics, Domestic Violence Stories, Nigerian Newspapers, Systemic Functional Linguistics.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

1.1  Background to the Study

 

Before the advent of Covid-19, women and children all over the world were increasingly facing many harmful traditional practices, which, in one way or the other affected their overall wellbeing, especially their sexual and reproductive health. These abusive and harmful practices are perpetuated mostly by men, religion and culture. In all parts of the world, women and girls suffer a great deal from domestic violence, which are culture bound. The present situation of domestic violence in Nigeria presents itself as roughly a diglossic situation, or one in which partners in a measure use physical, sexual or psychological violence to try to get power or control over the other. Muhammad (2015) gives more emphases on domestic violence as an act on a relationship or marriage in which partners use physical, sexual or psychological violence to try to get power or control over the other or due to losing their temper. This implication is that, it mostly occurs in heterosexual and same sex relationships in all aspects of African communities or countries like Nigerian. This has caused cultural, social and linguistic effect on people both men, women, children and the society.

However, research has shown that domestic violence and relationship are an intensively and dynamic event in which power is not only affected by the presence of the man, the woman and children, but also by the ever-encroaching presence of the extended family members and the whole community at large. Violence actions of the 1960s started during the Colonial era and continued after post-Colonial era. Then, there were no safe places in Nigeria; the violence extended into houses, neighborhoods, schools, hospitals and markets. This affected people in

 

different ways – socially, linguistically and culturally. However, (Austin (1962) developed comprehensive remedial approaches to salvage communication breakdown in his book entitled, ‘’How to Do Things with Word’’ is functional approach to speech act language as a model of actions. Austin explains what happens as a result of using language intentionally or unintentionally as a ‘’ communicative journey of consequence. He contends that there is a human communication, perlocutionary act which concerns ‘’uptake’’ ‘’perlocutionary object’’ ‘’sequel’’ and ‘’response’’.

Note that, domestic violence can be caused out of consequences or as a misunderstanding in interactional or conversational acts, in a situation. However, based on the African or traditional culture, religion, and societal belief, a woman is always submissive being under the man. The man will be in a higher control, authority and dominant over the woman, this makes them relatively unaffected by their relationship as they walk side by side without affecting each other, though the woman suffers the pains without complain. This has been seen as a serious problem that challenges the society at every level, and it has two sides effects. Hornby (2015: 1148) opined that violent behavior is an intended act to hurt or kill somebody, that it could be crimes, acts and threats. Hornby concluded that domestic violence is concerned with the physical and emotional act, which affects the people’s life in any society, or has to do with violence between members of the same family. It could be between husband and wife or the children (Hornby 2015: 433).

Studies such as that of Levinsion (1983), Leech (1883) and Peter (2000) have shown that the speech act theory arose as a challenge a restrictive view of a Philosophical doctrine called logical positivism that centered on the truth conditional analysis of sentence meaning. For logical

 

positivists, a sentence is only meaningful when it can be verified as being either true or false. As contained in Austin (1962).

Technically speaking, the divergent perceptions of language and pragmatics should be encouraged in various attempts on definitions of the subjects or domestic violence. However, many Linguists have carried out researches on pragmatics but this study discovered that only little researches have been done relating to Covid’19 pandemic domestic violence stories on how the media on how journalists use words in their discourse narrations in newspaper prints during the Covid’19 pandemics in Nigeria.

In linguistic, Language accounts for the attitudes towards and belief about all the domains in our society, which are governed by specific norms, rules and conventions by which they all abide. Language is used to reveal, manipulate, influence, and establish the means, forms, functions and motives of the construction of texts and genres within their dependent contexts, to raise language users’ awareness of the interaction of power, desire for power, and the use of language to achieve personal, institutional, commercial or political aims. De Saussure (1916) on his description of language pointed out that, Language is an important tool for social behavior and the relationship between language and social events influence social behavior and could be how cultural contacts influence language and state the relationship between language and power. The world is an interactional space, this interaction is necessary for progress and human thriving. Besides interpersonal interaction involving individuals, cultures also interact. When two people or culture interact, we say that there is social communication. While, the early linguists as well tried to shape pragmatics and set standards for it, According to Yule (2006: pp. 118), pragmatics is not everything is expressed explicitly; during the communication we often must ‘read between the lines’. Politeness is a good example. The direct command Close the window! Can be replaced by Oh, it is

 

so cold here, don’t you think? This is an indirect expression and still it is obvious that the other person is supposed to close the window. Such an expression is linguistically called ‘indirect speech act’, which means that the syntactic structure does not directly correspond to the function of the sentence.

Haugh (2014) noted that an implicature is commonly conceptualized in pragmatics as a form of speaker-intended meaning that arises in a principled way from the cooperative principle and conversational maxims through feasible inferences. With the above, it is clear that conversational implicature refers to the covert and indirectly expressed meaning that is passed across to one’s interlocutors in a communicative encounter by intentionally not obeying the cooperative principles. Here, the speaker might not have obeyed the cooperative principles, but the listener or the interlocutor assumes that the speaker’s contribution is truthful, informative, relevant and clear.

Cudden (1999) on the other hand, sees pragmatics as a learned discussion, either spoken or written, on a philosophical, political, literary or religious topic. He contends that in modern linguistics, discourse denotes a ‘stretch of language’ larger than a sentence. The term, has acquired much wider meanings and implications that are basically understood as an utterance and involves subjects who speak and write, which presupposes that there are listeners and readers who, in a sense, are ‘objects’. The order and goals of pragmatics are important in language analysis. Pragmatics seeks to explain how utterances convey meaning in context, how meaning is decoded from utterances in context and particular situation, how speakers and hearers perceive utterances as conveying the intended meaning in a particular context and how speakers can say one thing and mean something else Osinanwo (2003:57).

In Nigerian cultures, which are inimical to women’s, wellbeing, domestic violence include wife beating, female circumcision, child marriage, widowhood practices, son preference,

 

rape, sexual assault and cultural taboos (Kalu 2020: p.20) Eghafona and Oluwabamide (2003: p.245). In addition, Mary (2001: p.4) also maintained that the women are subjected to violent practices right from childhood, the girl is regarded as a bad investment and less emphasis and attention is placed on her education and health. Sometimes she may be married off at an early age without her consent. Consequently, she faces the risk of female genital mutilation, wife assault and beating, widowhood practices, witchcraft accusations, divorce, forced sexual relationship and stereotype.

Olubukola (2021:8) also, reported on the cases of domestic violence victims that the lockdown directive came as a huge paradox, as their choices of being safe are electing between the dangerous virus outside and the dangerous spouse inside the home. Therefore, coupled with the issues of isolation and fear of the virus, a violent abuser’s trigger will be escalated during the isolation, as he/she will be faced with the ripple effects of depression, financial uncertainty, boredom, lack of control, all of which, may lead to increase or aggravated occurrences of domestic abuse. Some scholarly research work here proved that in all parts of the world, women and girls suffer a great deal from domestic violence, which are culture bound especially during Covid’19 Pandemic lockdown.

A Pandemic is a disease that spreads over a whole country or the whole world (Hornby, 2015: 1061), while Covid’19 is a deadly coronavirus that emanated from Wuhan in china. It is a pandemic disease that attacks the respiratory track and it spreads through contact with an infected person through body fluid. The Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) was publicly announced a public health emergency of international concern by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 30^th January, 2020, and a pandemic on the 11^th of March, 2020. Since its onset in December 2019, more than 50, 414, 235 people have been infected across the globe and more

 

than 1, 255, 831 people have died, of which about 0.1 90 of deaths occurred in Nigeria as of 10^th November, 2020 (Ilesanmi et al 2020). From the above observation, this study is in support of the position of Ilesanmi (2020) which believes that to mitigate further transmission of Covid’19 in Nigeria, the Federal Government of Nigeria, through the presidential Task Force on Covid’19, should declare a nationwide lockdown. With the closure of schools, places of worship, markets, government and private establishments, land, sea and air borders, necessitating everyone to stay at home by limiting human contract, and allowing time to implement effective control measures.

According to some Nigerian dailies: Guardian, Sun, Nation, Punch and Vanguard newspapers, a directive to stay at home was issued by the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) in a bid to curb the spread of the deadly corona virus (Covid’19) in the country. The effort by the FGN to save lives during this pandemic inadvertently put some vulnerable group at risk (victim of domestic violence living with their abusers). Consequently, statistics have shown that reports of domestic abuse increased during the Covid’19 lockdown period. Victims are now on a full time basis stuck in the same house and home with their abusers. The directive has taken away respite in the form of office, church, market or family visits to escape for a while and avoid the abuser. The circumstance is worse for victims of domestic abuse, living in isolation with an abusive husband, wife, parents or friends. Imagine living in fear of the person who shares your home and every day is a nightmare of criticism, name-calling, and control, emotional and physical violence while the world is struggling with an ongoing pandemic. Thus, for those already in unsafe situations under the shadow of domestic violence, isolation could be fatal. Victims, mainly women and children who live with domestic violence might not have an escape from their abusers during this Pandemic period (Daily Sun, 2020: p.40; The Nation, 2020: p.45; Guardian, 2020: p.45 and The Punch, 2020: p.46).

 

In another related development, reports on domestic violence have escalated during this Pandemic and calls for self-isolation. Experience from other countries like China shows a corresponding rise in the number of women reporting increased incidents from the economic impact of the lockdown such as reduced income and financial difficulties, which are contributory to the violence. In India, the child line India helpline received more than 92,000 calls between 20^th March 2020 and 31^st March 2020, the start of India’s lockdown asking for protection from abuse and violence (Olubukola 2021). The Gender and Covid’19 working Group which is a network of interdisciplinary stakeholders interested in advancing research and practice related to Covid-19 in its report on Pandemic and Violence against women and Children in Australia stated that 400 frontline workers reported 40 percent increase in calls help. In the United Kingdom, Edinburgh live news on 6^th of April, 2020 reported that Refuge, a charity concerned with domestic violence have recorded 25% increase on its National Domestic Abuse helpline since the restrictions began, a few days, later Refuge reported a 700 percent increase in calls in a single day (Olubukola, 2021: p.10)

Roseline (2020: p.20) in Georgia State in the Unites State of American hospital noted that there is a 15% increase of domestic violence cases in their facilities, local media and hospitals. Ogunlayo (2020: p.51) also stated that, in Lagos State, the Coordinator of the Lagos state Domestic and Sexual Violence Response Team revealed that the state had reported and recorded an increase in cases of abuse since the lockdown started. According to her, before the outbreak of Covid’19, the state recorded an average of eight cases daily, which has increased to about 50 percent, and this has made the state to introduce more helpline and advantage on technology to assist victims of sexual abuse and domestic violence during the lockdown.

 

Women and men have experienced gender-based violence; the majority of victims are women and girls. In this view, the United Nations has recently raised an alarm regarding the increase in reported cases of domestic and gender-based violence directly attributed to forced proximity occasioned by lockdowns. Even before Covid’19 existed, domestic violence was already one of the greatest human rights violations. In the previous 12months, their partner has intimidated 243 million women and girls (aged 15-49) across the world (Phumzile 2020: p.50)

As the Covid’19 Pandemic continuous, this number is likely to grow with multiple impacts on women’s wellbeing, their sexual and reproductive health, their mental health, and their ability to participate and lead in the recovery of our faulty society and economy. A study Commissioned by Nigeria’s ministry of women affairs and social development and the United Nations. Population Fund (UNPFA) Nigeria with support from the Norwegian Government found that 28 percent of Nigerian women aged 25-29 have experienced some form of physical violence since age 15. The study also reported that 15 percent of women experienced physical violence within 12months, while 25 percent of married women or those living with their spouses have experienced violence. However, the most common acts of violence against women in Nigeria include sexual harassment, physical violence, harmful traditional practices, emotional and psychological violence, socio-economic violence and violence against non-combatant women in conflict situations (Afalabi, 2020, Premium Times, 2020: p.30).

Based on this, the study addresses issues concerning linguistics. Gender-based violence is not only contemporary but also global. In view of this, Nigerian daily newspapers particularly the Guardian, Nation, Sun. Vanguard and Punch were not left out in this call for change. There is tension as some negative gender based-violence and practices are spotted as traumatizing gender relations. The attempt by women to agitate for a change has given birth to organizations, groups

 

and movement especially feminism. Women have devised so many avenues to bring their pitiable condition to limelight and today there is committed effort to bringing all traditional harmful practices against women in society to an end or be reduced to a minimum level (Agee, 2000: 25).

In response to the plight of women and girls globally especially during Covid’19 lockdowns, so many measures have been put forward to curb the impact of domestic violence before, during and after Covid’19. To mitigate the effort of domestic violence, the society or community sees violence against women as encompassing thus: as a physical, sexual and psychological Violence, occurring in the families. They include battering, sexual abuse of female Children in the household, dowry-related Violence, marital rape, female genital Mutilation and other traditional Practices harmful to women, none Spousal violence and violence related to exploitation; physical sexual and Psychological violence occurring within the general community (Eme, 2005)

From the foregoing, it is clear that the effects of domestic violence against women during Covid’19 lockdowns were a reality and the need of the moment is how to reduce all forms of domestic’s violence against women both at home and in work places. With the Covid’19 pandemic serving to highlight the depth of the problem, amid alarming increases in violence against women, Federal, State, Local government and women’s civil society organization have made important strides to address gender-based domestics violence against women before and during the Covid’19 lockdowns.

There is a need to address the issues concerning reports of domestic violence in Nigeria by looking at the linguistics/pragmatics analysis of selected Nigerian Newspaper prints/reports in Nigeria. In view of this, the research is limited on few selected Nigerian Newspaper media prints

 

from the Guardian and Nation dailies particularly during Covid’19 period of lockdown. In this research, there is also a need to address the Journalists/reporters use of words on domestic violence cases daily, the pragmatics use of words for reporting cultures are inimical to women and other aspects which would be identified, the subjection of women and girls to domestic violence and other harmful traditional practices there is legendary to Nigerians. Here, the study pragmatically analyzed how reports on domestic violence have become a long time issue to the community for both man, woman and children right from childhood. These inhuman, discriminatory and sometimes dangerous practices span the female life cycle ranging from childhood, adolescence stage, and marriage and to old age unabated. Based on this, the research would focus on linguistic Pragmatic analysis of domestic violence stories discourse in selected Nigerian Newspaper Journalism reports during Cocid’19 Pandemic lockdown period in Nigeria.

1.2  Statement of the Problem

 

As the world battles with the Covid’19 pandemics, emerging evidence indicates a sharp rise in gender-based violence, especially, reported cases of violence against women and girls during the lockdown. The rising reports of domestic violence in Nigeria during the Covid’19 crisis have life threatening consequences for women and girls and a life trajectory. These impacts have had ripple effects across communities and the whole country. Nigeria has begun to recover from the detrimental economic and health impacts of the Crisis.

In recent times, a lot of research work has been carried out on gender-based violence issues in various aspects as a matter of important discussion in order to eradicate or put a stop on domestic violence across all Nation. Globally, some cultural restrictions keep women in perpetual suffering and debased states. Consequently, victims of these incidents face additional

 

challenges with the lack of structural social service systems in place in Nigeria. The lockdown itself has become the trigger of domestic violence having seen the statistics of the Covid’19 spread across the world.

Sutherland (2015) revealed that little is known about the structures of the materials in the media and what the structure has to do with acceptance or rejection of information. The structure of the materials that can explain how and why readers of materials are influenced by what they see read or hear in the media. Media influences on its audience belief system of how and why (Sutherland et al, Easteal, Holland, and Jude 2015) argued that unquestionably, the way information is structured can increase public understanding of violence against women and, more importantly, challenges its place in society.

Egen et al. (2020) looked at sexual violence narratives in traditional print media (newspapers) and the characteristics of sexual violence articles in national and regional traditional media outlets, by region, in the United States between 2014 and 2017. A higher percentage of articles in the United States national outlets than in the regional outlets used sex scandals and included calls for prevention in their reports. Smith, Ajayi, and Smith (2021) recently reported a content analysis of Nigerian Newspaper reports (on a total of 478 rape cases) that were published between January and September 2020 with a record spike of 130 reported cases in June. Based on the previous study, insufficient attention has been paid to linguistic pragmatics analysis of domestic violence stories discourse. How this may be realized spurred the researcher’s interest in embarking on this investigation to ascertain the linguistics pragmatics characteristics or features, functions and meanings of language used in social context, particularly of selected Nigerian newspaper report on domestic violence stories during the Covid’19 Pandemic lockdown period. In this regard, the study seeks to examine the use of

 

language by Journalists in reporting the cases of domestic violence stories in the media the Covd’19 pandemic 2020 in Nigeria.

1.3          Aims and Objectives

The general objective to this study is to examine the domestic violence stories in selected Nigerian newspapers during the Covd’19 Pandemic lockdown period through linguistic a pragmatics study. To this end, the study specifically seeks to:

1. Find out how language is used in context and how Nigerian media print use language to report domestic violence stories during Covid’19 lockdown.
2. Ascertain whether the selected newspapers give prominence to the pragmatic use of language in reporting domestic violence stories before and during Covid’19 lockdown in Nigeria.

• To identify the characteristics of linguistic features used to report domestic violence stories in the newspapers stories analyzed.

1. Ascertain how the context meaning is communicated and interpreted by the writer to the reader.

The outcome of this research will demystify and streamline some unknown facts regarding pragmatics in a written text in a social context by identifying the various meanings either the literary, the assumption, the intentional or the additional meanings attached to text or oral conversation in different events.

1.5  Scope and Delimitation of the Study

 

This study focuses on analyzing the pragmatic use of language in reporting domestic violence stories in selected Nigerian newspapers during the Covid‘19 pandemics in Nigeria. It also

 

describes the various characteristics or features, functions and meanings of language in social context communication and interaction of pragmatics in domestic violence discourse. The dates are taken from two Nigerian newspapers; Guardian, Nation.

1.6  Research Questions

 

The following research questions were raised in the study and shall act as a guide to the research.

1. How does the language use in social context used in reporting domestic violence stories on Nigerian media print during Covid’19 lockdown?
2. Would the selected newspapers give the prominence pragmatic use of language in reported domestic violence stories before and during Covid’19 lockdown in Nigeria?

• What are the characteristics and features of linguistic used to report domestic violence stories in the newspapers stories analyzed?

1. How does the language use in context communicate and interpret meaning from the writer to the reader?

1.7  Significance of the Study

 

The findings of the study will be of benefit to linguists in the area of Functional linguistics and pragmatics, lecturers in English Language, school administrators and stakeholders in education. The literature of the study will serve as guide to lecturers in English Language on how to instill pragmatic analysis principles on students.

The critical pragmatic analysis of domestic violence of this study on media print stories will provide insights into the analysis of the use of language in social context and prominence to the pragmatic use of language in report.

 

The critical study of language use in domestic violence reports in this study can help to provide a deeper understanding of the language in context on Nigerian media prints.

The critical analysis of this study can help to reveal how pragmatic is used to manipulate meaning in a social context, the techniques and linguistic strategies employed by the Journalists to help the linguists and readers have more understanding of the context in use.

This study will advance scholarship on academic pragmatics analysis as the concrete application of critical discourse analysis techniques that can provide a resource for scholarship and researchers in linguistic, pragmatics and related fields.

The analysis of this will not only contribute to academic scholarship but also has the potential to effect positive change in Sociolinguistics, landscape of Nigeria and beyond.

Pages:  200

Category: Dissertation

Format:  Word & PDF               

Chapters: 1-5                                          

Source: Imsuinfo                            

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTRACT

The study is on the problems in the use of past perfect tense among the users of English language as a second language. A study of students of Imo State College of Education, Ihitte Uboma. The study made use of the descriptive survey design. The study was guided by three research questions. Method of data analysis used was percentage. The sample of the study was two hundred and fifty (250) students. The instrument for the study was an objective test. Copies of the test questions were administered on the students and marked subsequently. The findings revealed that the students do not have good knowledge of the English tenses. While some of them displayed a good knowledge of the past tenses, a reasonable number of the students performed poorly in the test on the use of the past perfect tense. Findings also revealed that this poor performances is as a result of poor teaching and learning. It is also discovered that the rot in the Nigerian system, do not encourage the students to take the studies in English language seriously. It is recommended that there should be an improvement in the teaching and learning of English language.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

The demand for the English language in Nigeria has continued after the independence because of the numerous roles it plays in the modern day Nigeria. It is obvious that the English language is retained in Nigeria today because it is the language of expressing the institutions which the colonizers left behind. Thus, the business of education, technology, administration, judiciary and mass media, proceed in the English language. The English language in Nigeria is seen as the language of national stability and deveiopment. Ike (2007), asserts that the major function of language in national development is to facilitate communication among the citizenry and to coordinate the citizens’ joint actions and efforts towards the nation’s desired goals and objectives. The English language plays this vital role not because it is a native language, but because Nigeria is multilingual nation. Akindele and Adegbite (1999), claim that the Nigerian community is made up of more than two hundred and fifty ethnic groups with a conservative estimate of four hundred languages. Nigeria is therefore a multilingual speech community whereby diverse languages and cultures compete. The disadvantages of a multilingual speech community are made clearer in Genesis (11), The whole world was monolingual after creation. As such, they were united in every aspect because they understood one another. God realized that with the level of unity that existed among them, there was no limit to the things they could achieve God confounded their language. This made them scatter all over the earth. This goes to show us that multilingualism brings about disunity and retardation in a speech community except there is a national language.

The English language does not belong to any of the ethnic groups in Nigeria. It is the language of the British colonizers. The choice of the English language as a national language has been used to contain the political implication, which the choice of any of the native languages in Nigeria would have brought to the country. According to Onyema (2010), The role of the English language as an official language in Nigeria is situated by political convenience rather than pure linguistic consideration. The choice of one language over the others would bring such political problems as mutual suspicion and the fear of domination. The ethnic groups in Nigeria interpret the native language chosen as the country’s lingua franca as a way of conferring political domination on that particular ethnic group. Onyema (2010) Generally, despite talks about patriotism and national consciousness, the English language has retained its pride of place in Nigeria because of its political and social reasons. To allay the fear of domination, the English language is used as national language because of its neutrality, which none of the ethnic groups can lay claims to it. Ogu (1992) has expressed this thus; English language brought into one linguistic umbrella, people of diverse languages, ethnic groups… People found in it unobtainable linguistics unity that they so much craved for. Its non-ethnic nature provided them with a means of peaceful co-existence and communication.

In view of the prominent role assigned to the English language in the Nigerian constitution, the participating functions of the language become crucial to the lives of the people. Those who wish to participate in the social, political and economic life of the country must be proficient in the use of English language. Proficiency in English is generally required for admission to the parliament, to the bench and bar, civil service, essential services etc. Schools have also been entrusted with the task of socializing children to be active participants in the life of the nation. Eka (2000), indicates that in the language policy of Nigeria, the medium of instruction in primary schools is initially the mother tongue or the language of the immediate environment and at a, later stage English language.

English, among other roles in Nigeria also performs accommodating functions. It performs international functions. Onyema (2010), claims that the English language links Nigeria with the outside world. It is the language of international politics, trade, sports, diplomacy, technology transfer, among others. For instance, at the AU, UN and the Commonwealth, Nigeria has no language other than English for taking part in the deliberations. All these are made possible because of large number of English speakers. In terms of social mobility, Akindele and Adagbite(1999), assert that the ability to use English enhances both the horizontal and vertical mobility of people. Because of the prestige attached to the language, a speaker is considered an illiterate if he/she cannot speak English, even if such a person is literate in the mother tongue. The English language confers unity of the diverse ethnic groups in Nigeria. Otagburuagu and Anyanwu (2002), assert that the Nigerian national language dilemma makes the use of English a bridge language for inter-ethnic communication.

The Nigerian English is regarded as a variety of the British English. There are other varieties of the English language such as American English, the

Canadian English etc. These varieties of English that are different from the British standard variety arose as a result of the peculiar features which cannot totally be seen in the native English. Ogu (1992), posits that all languages are subject to variations the moment they leave their natural environments and spread to other areas… Bamgbose (1981), stresses that when two languages come in contact with one another, and one is performing an official role, such language will be influenced both cultural and linguistically in accordance with the reciprocal influence theory of language variation. It is then a common knowledge that no language leaves its natural environment without losing some of its features. This gives rise to the varieties of English we have, each variety reflecting its environment. The phenomenon known as the Nigerian English is that variety of English that has developed in the Nigerian non-native English situation.

According to Umera-Okeke (2009), it is evident that the cornerstone of the British introduction of the English language was not based on the evolution of a “standard” English but on the emergence of fairly communicative English. She also states that, the Nigerian English has come to stay as long as the official status of English in the Nigerian society is sustained. Umera-Okere also observes that many characteristic features of Nigerian dialectal forms of the English language exist at the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic and linguistic levels. Bokamba (1983), refer to it as the Nigerianism in Nigerian English. He defines it as any variety of English construction that reflects the phonological structural and semantic property of a Nigeria language(s).

Umera-Okeke (2009), asserts that these ethnic traits do not simply disappear just because a speaker is educated. This is because variation in English reveals more of cultural differences. The language, as it is now, has been domesticated to reflect the general social context within which it functions. Some popular forms of Nigerian English include:

1. Phonologic Features

Akindele and Adegbite (1999), discover that the Nigerian users of the English language obliterate the distinction in vowel quality between long vowels and short vowels. For instance, “beat” /bi:t/ is pronounced /bit/, ‘sheep’ /Ji:p/ uttered for /Jip/ and pot /pot/ for port /pO:t/. similarly, a reduced vowel system involves various substitutions such as lei is substituted for /ei/, /a/ for /a:/,/u/ for /u:/. Further, /6/ in think is pronounced /t/(tink), /s/for/z/,/f/for/v/, /[/for/

The author also expose that the syllable structure of many indigenous Nigerian languages is CV. Hence, the users of English insert /u/ in the following examples ‘bread’ /buredi/, ‘book /buku/ for /buk/. At the level of intonation, Akindele and Adegbite also posit that the Nigerian languages are syllable-timed rhythm characteristics of English.

2. Grammatical features

Jowitt (1991), observes that some of the Nigeria users of the English language reclassifying noun, adjective and adverb as verbs. For instance:

1. Off the light-: ln this case, the adjective “off’ functions as a verb.
2. I want to friend her: the word ‘friend’ in the context shifts from functioning as a noun to function as a verb. Jowitt also observes that certain collective nouns, are given plural markers such as: staffs instead of staff, congregations instead of congregation etc. He also discovered that state verbs   are   also   used   in  the progressive form by some Nigerian users of the English language.
   Examples;
3. I am seeing/hearing/smelling.
4. I am not having much money
5. Let me be going.

Another grammatical feature of the Nigerian English according to Akindele and Adegbite (1999), can be traced to the use of the ordinator “one” which is used in place of the indefinite article “a” as in:

1. We saw one canteen
2. One car is coming in front of us.

Jowitt (1991), also observes that the Nigeria users of the English language, use the English tenses wrongly. He states that the past perfect tense is used where the present perfect tense should be used. Examples:

1. In 1986, the nation was selling her crude oil at 28 naira per barrel.
2. Today, the price of oil had tumbled to an all-time low of 10 naira per
   barrel.
3. Lexical features

Certain Nigeria lexemes have found their way into the English language. Some of them have become acceptable because there is no lexical placement for them in the standard British usage. Examples; Akara, buka, ogbono, agbada, dansiki etc. Other features according to Akindele and Adegbite (1999), include the redefinition of the characteristic pattern of a word within the semantic field so that its central context becomes

marginalized and vice versa. The following highlighted words in the sentences below illustrate the point.

1. The machine broke down (machine for motorcycle).
2. I want to drink mineral (mineral for soft drink)

Nigeria is a multilingual nation but virtually every citizen of Nigeria is bilingual except for a few cases of monolingual Nigerians i.e Nigerians who speak only their mother tongue and multilingual Nigerians i.e Nigerians who speak their mother tongue, English language and some other native or foreign languages. Every bilingual Nigerian speaks his/her native language as a first language and the English language as a second language. Akindele and Adegbite (1999), assert that bilingualism in terms of the user is of two types: the societal and individual bilingualism. Societal bilingualism is otherwise referred to as national or governmental bilingualism. That is, it is used within a single polity of more than one language. The two languages dominate the sociolinguistic repertoire of the speech community. The languages are assigned significant roles by the society.

Individual bilingualism according to the authors refers to an individual whose repertoire is dominated by two distinct codes of communication.

Such an individual may be a member of a bilingual speech community or a multilingual speech community. The individual bilingualism is the type practiced in Nigeria.

Ike (2007), identifies that there are three degrees of bilingualism.

1. Coordinate bilingualism: This is a situation where a bilingual is able to speak two different languages and understand them well. According to the author, it implies the acquisition of communicative competence in the two languages. Some Nigerian users of English language are coordinated bilinguals.
2. Subordinate bilingualism: This is a situation where a bilingual is fluent in one of the two languages and not fluent in the other. This implies that he is good in both the spoken and written forms of his/her language but not good in the other language.
3. Incipient bilingualism: This is also another situation where a bilingual is able to speak one of the languages existing in his or her speech community well but only partially understands the second language.

Bilingualism and multilingualism have largely been seen as the major cause of the linguistic deviation seen in the use of the second and third languages. The concept called the Nigerian English; is a product of the contact between the British English and the native languages in Nigeria. The consequences of bilingualism gave rise to what is regarded as the Nigerian English. Akindele and Adegbite (1999), explore these consequences.

1. Code-Switching: Code-switching can be described as a means of communication which involves a speaker alternating between one language and the other in communicating events. In page 36 of their work, they highlight the reasons for code- switching;
2. It can occur when there is lack of facility in a language or by a

Speaker in discussing a topic in a language,

1. It can also occur to serve a linguistic need of providing a lexical,

Phrasal or sentential filler in an utterance,

• Code-switching is also used in quoting someone and also in

qualifying parts of utterance,

1. Speakers sometimes switch languages to specify their involvement in communication or mark and emphasize group identity,
2. They also switch to convey confidentiality, anger or annoyance and possibly to exclude someone or people from a conversation.

Another consequence of bilingualism is interference. It refers to those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilingual as a result of their familiarity with more than one language. The term implies a re-arrangement of patterns that result from the introduction of foreign elements into the more highly-structured domains of language such as the bulk of the phonetic system, a large part of the morphology, syntax and some areas of vocabulary, culture and discourse.

Akindele and Adegbite (1999), also identify borrowing as another consequence of bilingualism. They define is as the occasional use of items from one language in utterance of another language. This arose out of the fact that there is no language in the world that can be regarded as self-sufficient; as such, every language borrows from another. The authors also see the emergence of contact literatures as a consequence of bilingualism. Contact literature has been defined as the literature in English written by the users of English as a second language to delineate contexts which generally do not form part of the traditions of English literature. In contact literature, the bilingual’s creativity introduces nativized thought process which does not conform to the recognized cannons of discoursal patterns, from one’s other dominant linguistic codes and cultural and literary traditions.

The verb is the most important word class. It is the only word that can make a statement about the subject. A sentence cannot be complete without the use of a verb. Most of the commonly used verbs express action. The action is not always physical like the action expressed in the sentence below:

I will think about it. The verb in the sentence ‘think’ is not a physical action but a mental one.

The verb To Be does not express an action. With the help of some other word(s), it makes a statement about the condition of the subject, or the person, place of thing that is talked about. In this sentence, “Okoro is hungry”, the verb “is” does not express action of any kind, but it serves two purposes in the sentence. With the help of the word “hungry”, it makes a statement about the subject, “Okoro”. It also serves to connect the word, “hungry” with “Okoro”. The sentence simply means “hungry Okoro”, but one needs the verb “is” to make the statement a complete sentence. Because the verb has connecting functions; it is called a linking verb.

A verb is not always a single word. When the verb is composed of two or more words, it is called a verb phrase. The verb form at the end of a verb phrase is always the principal verb. It is the verb form that indicates the nature of the action. The other verb forms in the verb phrase are called auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, as in these examples;

• The teacher flogs the children.
• The teacher is flogging the children.
• The teacher has been flogging the children.
• The teacher must have been flogging the children.

In the first sentence, the verb consists of one word: ‘flog’. The verb ‘flog’, tells the kind of action that is going on. The verb in the second sentence consists of two words. The principal verb is ‘flogging’.

The auxiliary or helping verb is ‘is^!. The verb phrase in the third sentence is ‘has been flogging’. The principal verb is ‘flogging’ and the two helping verbs are ‘have been’. The verb phrase in the fourth sentence is ‘must have been flogging’. The principal verb is ‘flogging’. The principal verb is ‘flogging’ and the three helping verbs are ‘must have been’.

One of the most important things to know in the study of grammar is to be able to identify the verb or the verb phrase in any sentence. Verbs have quite a number of properties which other word classes do not have. One of the properties that belong exclusively to verbs and verb form is tense. Other properties in a verbal group system include; modality, finite tenses, aspect and voice.

The system of modality describes the manner in which the verb expresses the action or state of being. We can estimate the probability or the frequency of an event and the obligation or the inclination of a person to perform an action. Modality can also indicate doubt. The two types of modality are modalization and modulation. These two systems allow us to temper our propositions or proposals as regards probability, usuality, obligation or inclination. Modalization and modulation is an important politeness strategy. Opara (2018) posits that we all use modulation when formulating a request, depending on the familiarity we have with the person with whom we are interacting. It is not compulsory that a verbal group chooses from the system of modality and since the initial verbal elements determine the choice in the system of finiteness, only finite verbs choose from the system of modality. Mood and modality carry interpersonal meanings. She goes ahead to state, that mood is seen as the form of grammar while modality relates to its function or to the speaker’s attitude. Commonly used modalities include; will, could, may, shall, can, might, must, should, could.

The modal verb, ‘will¹, expresses certainty, ‘could’ expresses possibility, “may” expresses probability and politeness as in these sentences;

• May I use your pen?
• I may go to school today

The first sentence, expresses politeness while the second sentence expresses probability. The modal verb ‘shall¹, expresses inclination, ‘can’, expresses willingness and ability, as well as the interpersonal relationship between the speaker and the listener, as in these sentences;

• Can you do this?
• 1 can drive a car
• Can I use your chair?

The first sentence is asking if the addressed is able to do it. The second also expresses the addresser’s ability to drive a car. The third sentence expresses the interpersonal relationship between the addresser and the addressee. The modal verb, ‘might’, expresses probability, ‘must’, expresses compulsion, ‘should¹ expresses obligation, ‘would expresses politeness and a certain level of obligation, ‘could’ expresses possibility.

The system of finiteness, according to (Opara 2018:128), Features at the group level to indicate choices made between a finite and non-finite verbal groups. The initial verbal element makes the choice of the entire group in a complex verbal group. The position of a finite verb, may also classify the verbal group. If the first member of a verbal group is finite, the entire verbal group becomes finite. Examples include;

1. Okoro has been sweeping this house.
2. Chioma and Chika have been studying.

‘Has’ in the first sentence shows tense number (Singularity) concord. “Have” in the second sentence shows plurality. The finite element or finite verb is therefore a verbal operation that expresses tense or modality. In some cases, the finite element and lexical verb fused in a single word, as in;

The teacher flogged the student.

A non-finite verb has no subject and no finite verb. It cannot make a statement about the predicate because it is limited by number, person and time. Example, in this sentence; she told me to sleep; the verbal phrase ‘to sleep is not limited to a performer or doer. It is infinitive or basic form of verb by which most verbs can be formed. It is usually introduced by the marker “to” or by an infinitive present and past participle that act as the modifiers.

Another property of the verbal group system according to Opara(2018), is the system of Aspect. It describes the state of completion of the action in the verbal group. It indicates if the verbs stated is in the continuous form (Progressive) or completed (Perfective). Aspect was coupled with the tense system of the traditional grammar. The modern grammarians regard tense and aspect as two different models in the verbal group that should be separated in grammatical description. Examples

1. I am eating rice. (Present progressive with tense description present in present).
2. I was eating rice. (Past Progressive tense with tense description, present in past).
3. The boy has travelled (Present perfective with tense description past in present).

The system of voice comprises the active voice and the passive voice. A sentence is said to be in an active voice when the speaker or actor occupies the subject position and the receiver of the action occupies the object position. Example;

• Chioma broke the glass (active voice)

The glass was broken by Chioma (passive voice).

Webster (1987:EH20) posits that There are six tenses in the tense system of a verbal group. They show differences in the time of action or the time of the state of being or condition. The six tenses include; the present, past, future, the present perfect, the past perfect and the future perfect tense. The present tense denotes present time. It is also used to express habitual action or an idea that is generally accepted

• I see the moon (Present time)
• Glory works in an airplane factory (Habitual action)
• It pays to work hard (generally accepted truth).

The present tense is often used to express future time. As in this sentence;

If it rains, we shall not go to farm.

This sentence, expresses a future idea in a present tense.

The past tense denotes past time. The past tense of regular verbs is formed by adding -d or -ed morphemes to the present tense form or in the root word; call-called, cook-cooked, cage-caged. Sometimes the ‘d’ in the regular verb, changes to T as in build- built.

The past tense of irregular verbs is formed in various ways; Sometimes, there is change in the root word, the vowel sounds at the middle changes; example sing-sang, swim-swam, begin-began. Sometimes, the past tense form could be zero fixed. The root word remains the same, for example; bid-bid, hurt-hurt, cut-cut, slit-slit, etc.

The future tense denotes future times. The future tense is formed by combining the auxiliary ‘shall’ or ‘will¹ with the present tense form of the verb. The modal, ‘shall’ is used with the first person pronoun; I and we, while the second person; you, he, she, it, they, go with the modal verb, ‘will’. Examples;

• I shall go to the mall tomorrow (Shall-first person).
• He will clean up his room (Will-second person).

The only difference between the simple tenses and the perfect tense is that the perfect tense include the idea of completion. The word, perfect in grammars refers to an action or state of being that is completed at the time of speaking or writing. The present perfect tense denotes action that is completed at the time of speaking or writing. It may also indicate an action that is continuing into the present. The present perfect is formed by combining the finite have or has with the past participle of the lexical verb.

The finite, has is always used as the third person singular: She has cleaned the room.

• I have seen the new building (have seen-first person).
• You have earned a promotion (have earned-second person).
• Mercy has cleaned the room (has cleaned-third person).

In the first sentence, the verb phrase is ‘have seen’. It is in the present perfect tense. The verbal phrase is made up of the finite ‘have’ and the past participle of the verb ‘see’.

The past perfect tense denotes action that was completed before some definite time in the past. The past perfect tense is formed by combining the finite ‘had¹ with the past participle of the principal verb; had walked, had known, had drunk, etc. The finite, had, is the past form of have or has. It is used in a sentence to indicate that the action took place before another action in the past, example;

I had gone there before you came.

The future perfect tense denotes action that will be completed at some definite time in the future. The future tense is seldom used in informal speaking or writing. The future tense is formed by combining the modals

and finites; shall have or will have with the past participle of the principal verb. ‘Shall have’ is used in the first person and ‘will have’ in the second and third persons. Examples

• The boy would have gone before I arrive.
• By December,   the   committee   will   have   completed   the
• I shall have crossed the river three times before night.

Many verb errors are made because the writer or speaker is not familiar with the form of the simple tense and the perfect tense. The tense system of the verbal group system will be judiciously explored in this work.

English language has undergone a lot of conscious and subconscious modifications in Nigeria due to her multiethnic nature, probably to soothe the language the situation the country has been faced with. Thus, we have a variety of English language called the Nigerian English. This variety of English is characterized by different forms of interferences from the first language (L-i).

It has been observed that the Nigerian speakers of the English language, amongst so many other rule violations, do not pay adequate

attention to the tense system of English language. Tense according to Webster (1987:EH20) simply means time. It means the time an action took place. The tense system is divided into two; the simple tense and the perfect tense. The simple tenses include; the present, past and future tenses. The perfect tense involves an idea of completion. It is also stated that the word perfect is an action or state of being that is completed at the time of speaking and writing. The perfect tenses include; the present prefect, the past perfect and the future perfect tenses.

Opara (2018), posits that the past perfect tense is used to indicate an action, which has been completed at some point in the past time before another action, was completed. This aspect of the tense system, (the past perfect tense) is yet to be extensively studied in the Igbo context. It is against the backdrop that I’ve chosen to use Larry Selinker’s Interlanguage theory to explore the various ways in which the past perfect tense is being used and misused by the users of the English language as a second language from the Igbo extraction.

1.2            STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

It has been observed that previous researchers addressed the issue of wrong use of tenses by the second language users of English user of tenses by the second language users of English language but keen attention has not been paid to the use of past perfect tense. With regard to the above assertion; this study attempts to provide answers to the following questions:

1. How well do the second language users of English language use the past tense?
2. What are the factors that impede the correct use of past perfect tense?
3. What can be done to make the teaching of the English tense system more effective?

The research will go further to discover the level of competence these learners of English language as a second language  have attained in the mastery of the tenses.

1.3     Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are to evaluate the use of the past perfect tense by the second users of the English language and to discover various ways in which the past perfect tense is misused. The work will also elucidate the various factors that impede the effective teaching and learning of the tense system and suggest possible solutions to the problems.

1.4              SCOPE OF STUDY

The work will focus on the use of tenses, from the communication perspective. It will critically evaluate the use of the past perfect tense by the students of Imo State College of Education Ihitte-Uboma.

1.5     Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will be beneficial to teachers, students, curriculum planners and researchers in the education sector to obtain valuable information on the investigation of poor grammatical usages among students in the colleges of education.

This research will provide information on the most effective way to teach grammar in the schools. To the curriculum planners, it is expected that the data from this study will create awareness among the curriculum planner on the best way to improve the study of grammar in school.  This research will help the students to understand the importance of tenses in their spoken and written English and suggest possible ways to improve learning. Researchers will also find the information from this research work valuable as reference materials for further research.

---

Pages:  130

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF         

Chapters: 1-5                                 

Source: Imsuinfo                            

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

Abstract

This research work examined the themes of suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty with particular reference to the Nigerian Civil War of 1967 which led to the death of millions of Nigerians and destruction of properties. Findings from the study reveal that the war caused societal disorder, conflict and psychological damages and it also portrayed the damages and social injustices experienced by innocent citizens as a result of the war in the Nigerian society.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1     Background to the Study

Literature imaginatively recreates human experiences. There is no doubt that events in the society give writers inspiration. This is why a literary work can lead us into the very society that produces it. As a literary work emerges from a particular society, it carries with it, the sentiment and sensibilities of the people living in that society. Literature can relate to us the events of the past in a more vivifying manner than any history book can do. This is because the reader is allowed to encounter the beauty and horror of such events as they are recreated.

Historical events have remained a major source of material for writers of all ages and this is notably is in tandem with Ngugi Wa Thiong’s often quoted assertion in his Homecoming that:

Literature does not grow or develop in a vacuum. It is given impetus, shape, direction and even area of concern by the social, political and economic forces in a particular society. The relationship between creative literature and other forces cannot be ignored, especially in Africa where modern literature has grown against the gory background of European imperialism and its changing manifestations: slavery, colonialism and neo-colonialism… (8).

The point from the above quotation is that literature has a close affinity with history. History can be seen as a major content of literature, history as the content can be seen as the flesh. Another point from the above quotation is that the course of literature written by Africans in the African continent or in the diaspora has been shaped by the historical phenomenon of slavery.

Ngugi Wa Thiongs is not alone in the opinion that history and literature are interconnected. Steve Ogude corroborates the above position by Ngugi by stating that:

I believe we all agree that there is a sense in which every literary work is a response to a definite historical and socio-political condition and it is in recognition of this basic fact that literary critics speak confidently of the historical approach to literary criticism. This is a rather fluid term which seeks to situate a literary work not only in its historical conditions of the time. (1).

This is to say that literature can intimate a reader with things that have happened years before he or she was born. The nexus between history and literature cannot therefore be severed or overemphasized.

The Nigerian Civil War broke out on 6^th July 1967. The war was the culmination of uneasy peace and instability that had plagued the nation from independence in 1960. This situation had its genesis in the geography, history, culture and demography of Nigeria. The immediate cause of the civil war itself may be identified as the coup and the counter-coup of 1966 which altered the political equation and destroyed the fragile trust existing among the major ethnic groups. From the aforementioned, this work seeks to highlight the Issues of suffering and death as seen Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty.

The Nigerian Civil War also known as the Nigeria-Biafra War was a three year bloody conflict with a death tool numbering more than one million people. Having commenced seven years after Nigeria gained independence from Britain, the war began with the secession of the south-eastern region of the nation on May 30^th 1967 when it declared itself the independent Republic of Biafra. The ensuing battles and well-publicized human suffering prompted international outrage and intervention.

Carved out of the West Africa by Britain without regard for pre-existing ethnic, cultural and linguistic divisions, Nigeria has often experienced an uncertain peace. Following decades of uncertain peace and ethnic tension in colonial Nigeria, political instability reached a critical mass among independent Nigeria’s three dominant ethnic groups: The Hausa-Fulani in the north, Yoruba in the south-west and Igbo in the south-east.

On January 15^th 1966, the Igbo launched a coup d’état under the command of Major General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi Ironsi in an attempt to save the country from what Igbo leaders feared would be political disintegration. Shortly after the successful coup, wide spread suspicion of Igbo domination was aroused in the north among the Hausa-Fulani Muslims, many of whom opposed independence from Britain. Similar suspicion of the Igbo Junta grew in the Yoruba west, prompting a joint Yoruba and Hausa-Fulani counter-coup against the Igbos six months later. Countercoup leader General Yakubu Gowon took punitive measures against the Igbos.

Further anger over the murder of prominent Hausa politicians led to the massacre of scattered Igbo populations in Northern Hausa-Fulani regions. This persecution triggered the move by Igbo separatists to form their own nation of Biafra the following year. Less than two months after Biafra declared its independence, diplomatic efforts to resolve the crisis fell apart. On July 6^th 1967, the federal government in Lagos launched a full-scale invasion into Biafra.

1.2     Statement of the Problem

Topical issues in Suffering and death are major Issues in civil war literature. When one picks up a literary work by a writer of African descent, one is bond to encounter one form of soul-shattering and heartrending experience or the other. In this regard, it is important to speak of the homogeneity of the African experience and thus relatedness in the thematic preoccupations of African writers all over the world.

The major focus in this area of study which the researcher intends to examine is that: African literature scholars over the years have consistently variedly explored the themes of suffering and death in their works. Hence, Agony, Hunger, Starvation, Malnutrition and many more. In this regard, this study intends to establish that suffering and death are common denominators in African literature writing. This work will equally make it clear that there are various ways through which a person can experience suffering and death. This work emphasizes on war as one of those ways.

1.4     Aim and Objectives of the Study

This research work basically aims at explicating the issues of suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty. In other words, this research carries out a critical reading of their works with a view to discuss the issues of suffering and death as portrayed in them. The specific objectives of the study are to:

1. Explore the relationship between the historical experiences of Africans and the themes of suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty.
2. Examine the various instances of suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty.

• To establish by analogy, the relationship between suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty.

1.5     Justification of the Study

The discourse of the Issues of suffering and death in Nigerian poetry is not relatively a new area of study but the researcher is interested in the topic for the following reasons:

1. a) Even though so many scholars have been interested in Nigerian poetry and the themes of suffering and death, little or nothing has been done on relating the Issues with the African historical experience in contemporary Nigerian poetry.
2. b) Secondly, the researcher after a thorough research discovered that no work of this length has been carried out before on these same two Issues using the two works chosen for this study, hence the researcher resolves to go into this area of study.

 1.6     Significance of the Study

The Nigerian civil war had created a deep and psychological hiatus among the Igbos so much that it became a reference point for normative values, social behavior and economic travails. This study interestingly is set out to examine Adichie and Okpewho’s fictional rendition of a notably historical event and clearly show how their narratives unduly the pain and anguish of war and to what success. Even though research has been misconstrued as a ritual that must be performed by every graduating student, the researcher beyond that, proposes that this work accomplishes quite a number of intellectual roles. In the first place, this work would be an addition to the few existing research on the literary works of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Isidore Okpewho, and in that regard, the work will be of immense benefit to:

1. Students of literature by intimating them with the creative ingenuity of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Isidore Okpewho and their thematic preoccupation in their Half of a Yellow Sun and The Last Duty respectively.
2. Teachers and lecturers of literature by widening their scope in the topic under study.
3. Future researchers in the area of the themes examined in this research by serving as a source of material and inspiration for further studies.

 1.7     Scope of the Study

The topic of this research has clearly defined the scope of this study. The study is centered on the issues of suffering and death in Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last DutyoeHoe

. In view of the limited nature of this work, the researcher has carefully restricted the study to two novels –Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Okpewho’s The Last Duty. The choice of these novels are very instructive  and predicted upon their exemplification of the issue of psychological dispositions of the characters in the novel vis-avis torture, agony, suffering, ultimately resulting to avoidable death.

The experience of suffering is usually accompanied by death. Suffering and death as earlier pointed out are recurrent themes in Nigerian and African literature particularly.

 1.8     Research Methodology

          Every research work has means through which data are gathered and a manner in which such data are analyzed. The method of data collection employed in this study is the sampling technique. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun and Isidore Okpewho’s The Last Duty and were used as the primary materials to expound the issue of suffering and death in the novels. Other secondary materials such as literature textbooks, articles, essays, journals and materials from the internet were also used.

In analyzing the novels, the researcher employed the analytical method. The novels were critically studied to extricate the Issues of suffering and death as portrayed in the novels. Historical criticism was employed as the analytical tool in the study.

---

Pages:  71

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF         

Chapters: 1-5                                 

Source: Imsuinfo                            

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

---

ABSTRACT

This research work is on “The Effects of Bilingualism on the English of Tertiary Students”. The term bilingualism is the use of two languages by an individual or a community. That is the existence of two languages in the repertoire of an individual or a speech community. An important feature of bilingualism is that it is a consequence of language in contact which deals with the direct or indirect influence of one language on the other. The term ‘bilingual’ is used in describing people who know two distinct languages. Five research questions were used to investigate the effects of Bilingualism on the English of tertiary students. A total of three hundred (300) students from two tertiary institutions were used to carry out the investigation. Fifty (50) percent and above is regarded as a pass mark proving the effects of bilingualism on the English of tertiary students. The selected tertiary institutions are run by the state and federal governments. The interpretation of the data proved that bilingualism has positive (benefits) and negative effects on the English of tertiary students which includes enhancing and enriching the students’ language experiences, offering insights and opportunities for developing cognitive skills, enhancing ability to interact in the two languages, transfer concepts from one language to the other and a means of cultural transmission. However, the negative effects or consequences include: code-mixing, code-switching, mother-tongue (L1) interference, borrowing etc among other effects. Based on these interpretations or findings, recommendations such as encouraging parents to maintain bilingualism at home, and encouraging their children and wards to use both languages, language teachers’ emphasis on areas of difficulty and interference, more emphasis to be made by textbook writers, syllabus designers, curriculum planners, provision of instructional materials and financial assistance by the government were made to enhance proficiency.

CHAPTER ONE

 INTRODUCTION

• BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

 LANGUAGE

          One striking characteristic of a human being and something that distinguishes him from any other animal is the ability to use language in its most dynamic form namely speech. Every human society possesses a language, which is physiologically expressed in the vocal system and used in exchanging views about the universe. Anyanwu (2002:24, 25) posits that no human being is born speaking a language meaning that language is not inherited. However, every normal human person is born with the capacity to master the language spoken in his immediate environment and he achieves this complex task over time starting from the moment of his birth such that by the time he has attained six years and above he has become a user of that language. There are so many definitions of language by linguists in a bid to portray the importance of language in human existence. Akindele and Adegbite (1991:1) opine that language is characterized by a

set of vocal sounds which can be decoded. These are produced by the human organs of speech-lips, tongue, larynx etc. The vocal sounds produced by the vocal organs are used in various systematic and rule-governed combinations. Language is thus a human phenomenon that has form which can be described in terms of the unit of sounds (phonemes), words, morphemes, phrases, sentences and paragraph or discourse. Form refers to the means by which sounds are connected with meaning in language.

‘Language is the source of human life and power’ Fromkin et al. (2007:3). Human language is unique in the sense that it has its own structure, its system of organizing its component units into meaningful patterns.

Quirk (1971:42) defines language in the abstract as our facility to talk to each other; it is the faculty of speech which all human beings hold in common.

Fromkin and Rodman (1978:22) gave a definition that encapsulates all the divergent views of language. Thus “language is a conventional system of habitual vocal behaviour by which members of a community communicate with each other”. This definition suggests about five characteristics of language which include that: language is conventional, systematic, habitual, a vocal behaviour and a means of communication.

Language is also characterized by a set of arbitrary symbols that is, there is no one to one correspondence between the object and symbol, which stand for it.

Yule (1996:25) identified the unique properties of human language as follows: Displacement, Arbitrariness, Creativity, Discreetness, Duality and Cultural Transmission.

In summary, it can be described as system of sounds or vocal symbols by which human beings communicate experience. It is specie specific to man, that is, it is a special characteristic of human beings. Man uses language to communicate his individual thoughts, inner feelings and personal psychological experiences.

Language is used to establish social relationship. For instance, when you use language to greet, its function is phatic rather than informative. Language does not exist in a vacuum. It is always contextualized meaning that it is situated within a socio-cultural setting or community. There is a necessary connection between language and society. It is a means of expressing a society’s tradition and culture. So language exists as an aspect of culture. Yule (1996:6) also identifies two major functions of language as:  Interactional and Transactional. Interactional Function of Language according to Yule is its use by humans to interact with each other socially or emotionally, to express friendliness or hostility, pleasure or pain etc. While Transactional function is its use to communicate knowledge, skills and information.  Wallwork (1974) in Nwachukwu et al (2007:10) also summarized other specific uses of language as follows: Phatic communion, ie. Language used to establish social relationship, for ceremonial purposes, as instrument of action, for Record keeping, for passing on facts and information for influencing people, enabling self-expression and embodying and enabling thought.

1.2.1 THE STATUS/ROLE OF ENGLISH IN NIGERIA

English language is retained in Nigeria today because it is the language for expressing the institutions the colonizers left behind. Thus the business of education, technology, administration, judiciary and mass media proceed in the English language.  English language occupies a dual status in Nigeria namely second language and Lingua Franca: Although there is no official statement on the status of English as a lingua franca in Nigeria, the language plays the role from the perspective of usage. Nwachukwu et al. (2007:74)

The term second language is generally used to describe any language whose acquisition starts after early childhood. For most Nigerians, English is learnt after the acquisition of native language. Encyclopedia Britannica (2007) describes lingua franca “as language used as a means of communication between persons having no other language in common”. In the multi-lingual Nigerian situation, English plays the additional functions of a common means of communication amongst members of different language groups.

Although there is no explicit declaration assigning lingua Franca status to English in Nigeria. It is the language of widest/most common interaction among all the ethnic groups in Nigeria. The functions of English in Nigeria are looked at from the perspective of second language and lingua franca.

English as a Second Language In Nigeria

English is seen as the language of National stability. This is because Nigeria is a multi-lingual country with about four hundred and fifty languages Osuafor (2002:15).

English and Education

        Nwachukwu (2002:15) opines that English has remained the primary language of education right from the colonial era. The language provisions of the National policy on education (2004) clearly defines the functions of English in primary education in Nigeria thus:

”The medium of instruction in the primary school shall be the language of the environment for the first three years. During this period, English shall be taught as a subject”.

According to this National Policy on Education, the mother tongue is the medium of instruction in lower primary while English is studied as a school subject at this stage. Thereafter, English remains the medium of instruction and compulsory school subject until the end of secondary education.  All textbooks except those on the indigenous languages and French are written in English. It is a partial medium of instruction in the teaching of even the indigenous languages and French. Examinations in all subjects (except the indigenous languages) are written in English and certificates from primary school to tertiary level are also written in English. It is the only subject that is compulsory at all examinations for admission into secondary schools and tertiary education.  Competence in English (spoken and written) is an index of good education in Nigeria. It is as a result of these criteria that the minimum pass grade for admission at the tertiary level in Nigeria is a credit pass.  English is also a compulsory subject in tertiary education and it is studied with a variety of course titles in the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education as either “use of English” or “General English”, or “Communication in English”. A minimum of a pass grade is mandatory for graduation from tertiary education irrespective of area of discipline. The English language is for now an indispensable language in the Nigerian educational system.

English and Government

English is the primary language of officialdom in Nigeria.  Although there is no rule that forbids the use of indigenous languages in official transactions, English has remained the language of official documentation and general official transactions. Ogu (1992:93) states that “…. The stand of government policy is that English is the national language in Nigeria and to be used in political administration and for education purposes”. All official correspondence in the civil service are conveyed in English. Section 51 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria states that:

“The business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English, Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba when adequate arrangements have been made”

The business of the national Assembly is now conducted in English and this suggests that “adequate arrangements” for the use of Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba are yet to be made. Similarly, the language provisions of the state House of Assembly favour the use of English. Ogu (1992:93) quotes section 91 of the Nigerian Constitution which states that:

The House of Assembly shall be conducted in English but the House in addition to English, conduct the business of the House in one or more other languages spoken in the state as the House may by resolution approve”.

The language of the judiciary, which is an important arm of government, is English. From the Customary Court to the Supreme Court, the language of Law in Nigeria is English and this is evidenced in various ways. For instance, Laws are written in English and the court uses interpreters in situations where any party in court does not understand English. Again, legal proceedings are in English even in situations where the presiding magistrate or judge speaks and understands the language of the parties before him in the court..

The primary language of politics in Nigeria is English. All national campaigns and election programmes are conducted in English. Even in the state level where people have a common language, the language of politics is still English or Pidgin English particularly in Southern Nigeria.

Similarly, the official language of the armed forces (military), the paramilitary and the police in Nigeria is English though interpersonal interactions may be in the indigenous languages.

The mass media, which is another important arm of the government, has English as its primary language. Information is power and the language of mass media in a country is significant.  The national news, (Radio and Television) is read in English and National news  in the major Nigerian language is available only on a few stations.

The major Newspapers in Nigeria are produced in English and only a few, particularly propaganda and comedy are produced in Hausa and Yoruba in particular. Most advertisements that are of national relevance are in English.

English as Lingua Franca

English is a non-native language in Nigeria but it functions as lingua franca (common language) in the multilingual and multi-cultural Nigerian settings. English is the language of widest communication amongst Nigerians in the 21^st century. In discussing the usefulness of English as a unifying force in Nigeria, Jowitt (1991:23) cites Adebisi Afolayan who states that:

“It is unrealistic for anybody in Nigeria today to think that National Unity can be forged in the country without recourse to the utilization of the English language ….”

Furthermore, the fact that it is now functioning as the language of nationalism cannot be denied”.

Ogu (1992:94) in his discussion of the matter states that:

“It has since become clear that this language (English) which used to be a taunting reminder of our colonial past has no immediate connection with the political and economic supremacy of the past.

Gradually, but significantly, English is getting into every home. This gradual development is a response to a change over which nobody can exercise control, a change from the strong village ties of the past to the demands of modernity”

Ogu (1992:94) further argues that English is no longer a foreign language in Nigeria. It has been adopted and appropriated to Nigeria and is used as the language of education and made to fulfill all the roles normally reserved for mother tongue.

As a lingua Franca (common language) English is the primary language of social interaction amongst different ethnic and language groups in Nigeria. It is estimated that there are more than 400 languages in Nigeria. In this multi-lingual and multi-ethnic setting, English is readily the means of communication particularly among the educated class. The uneducated also find a form of English ranging from pidgin to “ Broken” English, a convenient option in situations where the different language groups are unable to communicate in any Nigerian language. It is indeed a trade language for business transactions whenever there is need for a common means of communication. Even some Nigerians from the same language group but different dialects rely on English for mutual communication, especially in Southern Nigeria.

English has even become a common language among some Nigerian children who are resident in Nigeria but speak no other language except English. Pear group interaction is often in English, especially in cosmopolitan cities where different languages are spoken. Christian religious programmes including sermons and tracts depend mainly on English particularly in the urban areas. It is a normal practice with some Christian denominations in Nigeria that sermons are preached in English and interpreters used even in situations where the entire congregation including the preacher understands the language of the interpreter.

In conclusion, it is clear that in the 21^st century, English has remained an Indispensable second language that also functions as a lingua franca in Nigeria.  Competence in the language is therefore a basic necessity for every Nigerian who desires to be relevant in the socio-political and economic activities in the country.

• LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Language Acquisition is defined by Wilkins (1974) in Nwachukwu et al. (2007:28) as the process where a language is acquired as a result of natural and largely random exposure to language. From the first day of his existence, the child is bombarded with language by those around him especially his mother and other members of his family. During the first twelve months or thereabout, the child is more or less an observer but unknown to many, a keen listener. It is obvious that he has been listening and practicing all along when from the blues, as it may seem, he utters a meaningful expression, such as ‘mama’. In the next four years, the child acquires his native language through corrections he receives for his mistakes. For instance, the child discovers that though the plural of ‘pan’ is ‘pans’, the plural of ‘man’ is not ‘mans’ but ‘men’.

There are various ways in language acquisition in which the learner gets a feedback. The adults present might simply tell the child he has made mistake and correct him or may just reformulate the child’s utterance in a more grammatical form.

Wilkins (1974:30) posits that the feedback provided by other people does more than simply inform the child whether or not his message is correctly formed. It also demonstrates to him that his language has an effect on the behaviour of others. In essence, the child becomes aware of the regulatory function of language. This motivates him a great deal in learning the language. The rate and quality of learning in children will not be identical since they have different intellectual gifts. Absence of physiological and psychological handicap fosters the process of language acquisition.

1.3   THE NOTION OF BILINGUALISM

The term Bilingualism can be defined as the use of two languages by an individual or community. That is the existence of two languages in the repertoire of an individual or a speech community (Akindele and Adegbite (1999:28). The two languages exist side by side and are used by the individual or community. It is the native – like control of two languages.

Bilingualism is also described as the ability of an individual to produce update meaningful utterances in the other language. An important feature of Bilingualism is that it is a consequence of language in contact, which deals with the direct or indirect influence of one language on the other (Mackey, 1968) in Akindele and Adegbite (1999:28).

Osuafor (2002:196) stated that in Nigeria, there is contact between the English language and the Vernacular of the different ethnicities. And the result is the presence of people who are users of both their vernaculars (L1) and the English language (L2) in the country. Thus, there are Igbo – English, Yoruba – English, Hausa -English bilinguals and so on.

Each of the two languages in Bilingualism has its own distinct phonological, lexical, grammatical and discourse rules. Each therefore forms a code of communication in the community or individual who uses it. Examples of Bilingual speech communities are Canada where English and French are considered very important to the life of the people; Nigeria where several bilingual speech communities exist for example: Hausa/kanuri bilingual community and in Britain where some communities are bilingual e.g. Wales where they speak Welsh and English.

 

1.4   THE ORIGIN/CAUSES OF BILINGUALISM

The genesis of bilingualism could be traced to the following factors namely; colonialism, conquest, trade and commerce, annexation and border line areas. Akindele and Adegbite (1999:28)

1.4.1        MIGRATION AND WARS OF CONQUEST

The situation of conquest arises from large group expansion when a powerful nation embarks on a particular war in order to be able to control the politics of a weaker nation. This was the situation with a country like USA, which was dominated by the Indians originally but was conquered and ruled by the British who later introduced the English language as well as its culture to that society. In essence, the community became bilingual. The same factor was also responsible for the Australian State.

It is also possible for small members of a group to migrate to a larger community. For example, the 19^th century and 20^th century European and Chinese migration to the U.S.A  Akindele & Adegbite (1999:29).

Trade and Commerce

An individual or community who attempts to trade with another individual or community also results in bilingualism. In bilingual trade and commerce activities, it is not only goods that are exchanged but also the languages and cultures of those involved. This reason accounts for why many Nigerians are able to speak their mother tongues in addition to other indigenous languages.

1.4.2  COLONIALISM

One of the major sources of bilingualism is colonialism. This could be in two forms. The first form involves the process of ruling the indigenes of a particular state through their traditional rulers. In this process, the language and culture of the colonialist are introduced through the process of education into the social, economic and political life of the nation involved. It is through this process that many African states, particularly those ones occupying the Anglo-region, for example, Nigeria, Ghana and Kenya became bilingual in English and their mother tongues.

This is the situation with French. French assimilated  Francophone African nations who were made to believe that they were part and parcel of France. In such situation, there was less resistance to the introduction of French language and culture in all the countries colonized by the French. Such countries became bilingual in French and their indigenous languages.

1.4.3        BORDER CONTACT

This is another clause of Bilingualism in which a community shares the border of two different countries. For instance, the occupants of Idi-Iroko, a community which shares the boundaries of Nigeria and Benin Republic are bilingual simply because they interact with the Beninous who speak French and the Lagosians who speak Yoruba. The inhabitants of this town speak Yoruba and French. These people are also bicultural in experience. The sharing of common markets, religious centers and other social, cultural and religious activities by inhabitants of border towns also cause bilingualism.

1.4.4  ANNEXATION

This is another cause of bilingualism. The annexation of a community to another one results in bilingualism. Annexation refers to the process whereby a community forcefully acquires another community. The annexed community is made a part of the acquiring community and members of the two communities can acquire each other’s language. Annexation also is a type of imperialism, however, it is different because colonization involves crossing the ocean.

1.4.5  EDUCATION AND CULTURE

A further cause of bilingualism is Education and Culture. Throughout history, particular languages and cultures have dominated the lives of people across the globe. In the Roman Empire for instance, Greek was the language of Education and Culture. Almost all educated Romans were educated in Greek and Latin which were the languages of Philosophy, medicine, Rhetoric and Literature.

With the spread of Christianity, Latin became the dominant language of Culture. English is the usual international language of science and technology. Thus in all these periods, many educated people have been bilingual or multi-bilingual in their native language and in the language that was culturally prominent at the time.

1.4.6  FEDERATION OR AMALGAMATION

Bilingualism can result from  federation or amalgamation of diverse ethnic groups or nationalities for example, Nigeria and Cameroon. This type of federation is often forced and after independence, some of the groups or states may attempt secession.

For instance:

• Biafra from Nigeria
• Katanga from Zaire
• Bangladesh form Pakistan.

1.4.7    NATIONALISM AND POLITICAL FEDERALISM

This is another cause of bilingualism. Nationalism had a great impact on the spread of national languages in preference to regional languages. There is a conscious process on the part of the Government that Igbo, Hausa and the Yoruba (WAZOBIA) are used as the major official languages.  If for instance, Government Policy forbids the use of English as national language in schools, and public life, then bilingualism will be short-lived.

 

1.5     TYPES OF BILINGUALISM

Akindele and Adegbite (1999:31) identified three factors or types of Bilingualism. They are

• User
• Chronology/time
• Learning situation and
• Purpose

User:  In terms of the user, there are two types of bilingualism, namely: Societal and Individual bilingualism. Societal bilingualism can be defined as a situation whereby two different languages exist and function independently of other languages within the society concerned. The two languages dominate the socio-linguistic repertoire of the speech community. The languages are assigned significant roles by the society. They function as a means of communication in that society.

Societal bilingualism is otherwise referred to as National (or Government) bilingualism. That is the use within a single polity of more than one language (Stewart, 1968). This arises as a result of the eventual elimination, by decree or education of all but one language, which is to remain as the national language. It is also due to the recognition and preservation of important languages within the national territory supplemented by the adoption of one or more languages to serve for official purposes and for communication across language boundaries within the nation, as in the case of English language, Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo.

A very significant factor in describing cases of national or societal bilingualism is the specification of the functions of each of the linguistic codes within the communities. The languages involved in societal bilingualism must function as legally appropriate for all politically and culturally representative purposes on a nationwide basis.  The official function of the languages is specified constitutionally.

Individual bilingualism refers to an individual whose repertoire is dominated by two distinct codes of communication. Such an individual who may be a member of a bilingual community or multi-lingual community has the ability to acquire grammatical and communicative competence in one of the languages and lack competence in the other. An important factor about a bilingual person is his ability to sustain two different codes of communication.

Bilingual types identified in terms of ‘Time’ are simultaneous and ‘sequential’ or consecutive bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism two languages are learnt at the same time, usually at an early age whereas in sequential bilingualism, the languages are learnt at different times.

In sequential bilingualism, the first language or mother tongue is acquired at birth while the second language is acquired later. Bilingualism acquired at a later stage is referred to as ‘late’ or ‘adult’ bilingualism.

In terms of ‘Learning situation’, bilingualism can be acquired at school or out of school.  Bilingualism acquired out of school is known as “informal bilingualism’.   In Nigeria, societal bilingualism is achieved formally and sequentially since a child normally has a mother tongue acquired at home and English learnt later at school.

In terms of ‘Purpose’, bilingualism is identified when the two languages are used for the same functions and or the same amount of functions, which is very rare, then we have a situation of ‘Balanced’ bilingualism or ‘Ambilingualism’. In that event each of the two languages is a mother tongue. But when the two languages are used for different functions and/or different amounts of functions, we have a situation of ‘Non-balanced’ bilingualism. In this case, one of the languages is primary and is used for everyday activities while the other is secondary and is used for formal or special activities.

1.6   THE EXTENT OF BILINGUALISM

The extent of bilingualism can be described in respect of the following degrees of individual bilingualism: coordinate bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism and incipient bilingualism. Akindele and Adegbite (1999:32).

1.6.1       COORDINATE BILINGUALISM

A coordinate Bilingual is a person who is able to speak two different languages and understand them well. Such a person will have acquired communicative competence in the two languages whereby he will understand the roles of each of the languages perfectly well and be able to communicate effectively with them in any situation. Such a person will be able to do so without giving room to any suspicion that he or she is more competent in one of the languages than the other. This means that the bilingual person is able to separate effectively well the codes of each of the languages being used. This group of individuals has a near native-like competence in the two languages.

Coordinate bilingualism differs from compound bilingualism in that in compound bilingualism, the two codes are available for one semantic reality, they both serve principally to express the same background and culture  (e.g. English and French in Canada). This type of bilingualism occurs mostly when both languages are learned at about the same time under similar circumstances and used in the same situation e.g. at home or at school.

In the coordinate bilingual, the two languages function independently and may express two distinct backgrounds and ways of life, the native and the non-native culture (e.g. Igbo and English in Nigeria).  There is normally a single or mixed store for both languages. Such a bilingual will thus be able to have the same reference for two words, one in each language.

1.6.2    SUBORDINATE BILINGUALISM

A subordinate bilingual is an individual who is fluent in one language but is not able to speak fluently in the other.  For instance, someone may be good in his mother tongue both in spoken and written form but not good in English.

A subordinate bilingual is usually competent in the grammar as well as in the communication process of one language. Such a person can be equated with a native speaker of the language in which he/she is fluent.  On the other hand, he/she may be fluent in the spoken form of the two languages but less competent in the grammar of one of them. A subordinate bilingual is usually unable to speak one of the two languages the way a native speaker does. In the speech of such an individual, interference is readily discernable even though he can still be understood. Examples of subordinate bilinguals can be found in the Nigerian educational system varying from the nursery to the university level whereby certain individuals are very fluent in the (mother tongue) MT but are deficient in the second language.

1.6.3    INCIPIENT BILINGUALISM

An incipient bilingual is an individual who speaks one of the two languages existing in his speech community well but only understands the second language partially. Such an individual is very competent in one of the two languages, most often the mother tongue.  For example, there are the semi-literate speakers of Igbo, Yoruba and Hausa who speak their indigenous languages, but cannot speak or understand English well. Examples are found in Nigeria among petty traders, touts etc. This category of Bilingual may be unable to produce any correct sentence or utterance in the second language but they still indicate some understanding.

1.7   THE OUTCOME OF BILINGUALISM

The outcome of bilingualism is observed in two respects namely stable bilingualism and transitional bilingualism.

Stable Bilingualism:  This is described as a situation whereby two languages are maintained for a lengthy period of time. There must be good reasons for a group to remain bilingual. As long as there are different monolingual communities in a nation and there is the likelihood of contact between them, this results in bilingualism. (Mackey, (1968:555). Canada, Switzerland, Ghana and Nigeria are destined to have long term bilingualism, even though only a small percentage may be bilingual.

These countries are made up of separate monolingual communities with a small portion of the population serving as bilingual contact between the groups. The language of contact is usually the dominant/prestige language. English and French for Canadians and English for Nigeria.

Transitional Bilingualism: This takes place when a bilingual group reverts to mono-lingualism (for example: German and Turkish to German), when foreign influence diminishes. A self-sufficient bilingual community has no reason to remain bilingual since a closed community in which everyone is fluent in two languages could get along just as well with one language. (Akindele and Adegbite, 1999:34).

Transitional Bilingualism has three forms, which includes – the maintenance of the group’s original language may lead to the disappearance of the L2. Non-maintenance of the L1 may result in language shift or displacement of the L1. For example, Egyptian to Arabic.  Also, a new language may result through the processes of pidginization and creolization as can be seen in Haiti, Jamaica and New Melanesia. (Akindele and Adegbite (1999:34)

1.8   THE EFFECTS OF BILINGUALISM ON THE ENGLISH OF TERTIARY STUDENTS

 

Bilingualism has both positive and negative effects on the English of tertiary students. The positive effects, which can also be called Benefits of bilingualism, are as follows

1.8.1   THE BENEFITS/POSITIVE EFFECTS OF                       BILINGUALISM

The effects of being bilingual are positive in terms of language development as a whole including the first language. When learning two languages at the same time, the learner becomes aware of language itself, having two or more words for each object, idea or concept will expand rather than contract the mind.

There will be transfer in thinking from one language to another that is if a child is taught Mathematical multiplication and division in one language. Those skills do not have to be retaught  in the second language.

Bilingual learners are able to pick up correct pronunciation quickly by learning the sounds of two languages something adults find difficult to do. Bilingual situation sometimes lead to ‘diffusion’ that is certain features spread from one language to the other as a result of the contact situation, particularly certain kinds of syntactic features. Wardhaugh, (2010:97).

A bilingual who learns that meaning can be represented in more than just one way that is through exposure to another language and thus another collection of sounds to represent the same objects has learnt something important about the nature of language and develops additional insights into the nature of language that are not available to the mono-lingual learner, Liddicoat, (2001:14-15). Much of the research on cognitive aspects of second language learning has focused on creative divergent thinking and many studies indicate a bilingual advantage in these areas  Biahystok  (2001) and Bialystok, et al (2005).

Bilinguals appear to develop a more analytical orientation to language due to their experience in organizing their two language systems and keeping them separate while they perform particular tasks. This experience appears to give them an advantage over mono-linguals when they perform tasks involving control of processing  (Bailystock 2001).

Bialystok (2001) notes that bilinguals do not have a uniform or ‘across’ the board metalinguistic (relating the formal system of language to the other cultural systems or the study of language systems in distinction from that of paralanguage) or cognitive advantage of monolinguals. However, she suggests that early acquisition and regular use of two languages have been shown to enhance the ability of children to solve problems, which require them to selectively attend to information. For instance, where they are required to ignore or inhibit misleading information.

She refers to this as “control of linguistic processing” or “cognitive control” and detailed studies, which have shown this advantage for bilinguals over mono-linguals across several domains of thought, including concepts of quality spatial concepts and problem solving (Bailystok et al 2005:40).

Academic and cognitive skills transfer readily between language while there may be differences in the vocabulary, grammar and writing systems of languages, all languages with writing systems have in common that the reader must learn to make meaning from the text. Concepts and strategies involved in this, transfer easily from one language to another. The overall reading competence in two languages does not operate separately, Baker, (2006:330). Bilingualism has been shown to enhance children’s metalinguistic awareness and thereby their reading readiness. Bilingualism has cognitive advantages particularly in domains such as helping students understand the arbitrary nature of language systems.

Obviously, the major positive consequence of bilingualism is knowing two languages and thus being able to converse with a larger array of individuals, as well as having access to two cultures, two bodies of literature and two worldviews. Speaking other languages also has economic advantages as bilinguals are in high demand in the new global economy.  There is also considerable evidence that many key literacy-related skills, including phonological awareness, print concepts, decoding skills and extended discourse are transferable from L1 to L2.

• THE NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF BILINGUALISM ON THE ENGLISH OF TERTIARY STUDENTS

The negative effects of bilingualism on the English of tertiary students are observed through the following features which include code-switching, code-mixing, interference of L1 on L2, code-borrowing, bilingualism and biculturalism.

1.8.2a.     CODE-SWITCHING:

This is the interchangeable use of two languages within the same speech exchange by bilinguals in an informal setting, Osuafor (2002:199). Usually the participants in the speech situation share the same bilingual background and understand the syntactic structures of the language involved.

Code-switching is said to be operating where there is a conscious alternating of codes of different languages in the same communication setting usually at the inter-sentential or discourse level in order to impress, deceive or to disguise.

Akindele and Adegbite (1999:34) describe code switching as a means of communication, which involves a speaker alternating between one language and the other in communicating event.  In other words, someone who code-switches uses two languages or dialects interchangeably in a single communication. This switching can be interlingual or intralingual. A communication which may involve a native tongue and a foreign language or two foreign languages or two dialects of a language can be initiated with one of the two languages and be concluded in the other for example,  starting a discussion with Igbo and concluding in English.

Types of Code-Switching

Code-switching can be discussed from two different perspectives: that is Functional and Formal perspectives. The functional types of code-switching are the conversational, situational and metaphorical. In this perspective, the bilingual in an attempt to carrying out the communication employs items from two different languages and tie them together by syntactic and semantic relations.

Another characteristics of this code-switching is that participants often are not conscious of which language they are  using at a point in time in their discussion. For instance, if Hausa and Igbo are switched in a conversation, the co-participants are not conscious of who switches from one language to the other and particular languages being used at a particular time. The speakers are mainly concerned with the message content of the conversation.  Conversational code-switching is patterned much the same way as if it were following the grammatical rule for a single language.  An understanding of the syntactic structures of the language involved is a necessary prerequisite for an individual to be able to codeswitch efficiently. Conversational code-switching  is in vogue in everyday speech events particularly in informal situations.

In situatioinal code-switching, two different languages are assigned to two or more different situations. The setting, activity and participants in such situations remain the same. However, the two languages used in switching serve as a metaphor representing a different situation. This may be due to a change of subject matter or a new set of role relations.

The formal type of code-switching refers to the linguistic realization of code-switching from one language to the other. Code switching in this formal type refers to a complete change from one language ‘A’ to another language ‘B’. There is instead a blend of the two codes of communication involved in the communicative process. An inter-sentential code change realizes a switch that takes place across sentences e.g.

John was at the party, Onyere anyi mmanya, after that he introduced us to the celebrants. Obi toro ya uto. The intra-sentential code change or switch takes place within a sentence at major constituent boundaries such as noun phrases, verb phrases and clauses e.g. Ada wetaram cup ahu no n’elu table na palour. (Ada bring that cup on top of the table in the palour).

Reasons for Code-Switching

So many reasons abound why code-switching occurs in the speeches of individuals. It can occur when there is lack of facility in a language or by a speaker in discussing a topic in a language. It can also occur to serve a linguistic need of providing a lexical, phrasal or sentential filler in an utterance.  Code-switching is used in quoting someone and also in qualifying (amplifying or emphasizing) parts of utterances.  Speakers sometimes switch language to specify their involvement in communication or mark and emphasize group identity. They also switch to convey confidentiality, anger or annoyance and possibly to exclude someone or people from a conversation.

1.8.2b.     CODE-MIXING

Code-mixing refers to a situation whereby two languages are used in a single sentence within major and minor constituent boundaries. The mixing of items occurs almost at word level.  Akindele and Adegbite (1999:37).

Osuafor (2002:200) states that code-mixing is an informal speech setting which occurs unconsciously at the intra-sentential level. Code-mixing has also been defined by Kachru (1978:28) as “The use of one or more languages for consistent transfer of linguistic units from one language into another and by such a language mixture developing a new restricted or not restricted code of linguistic interaction.

The following examples from Igbo Bilinguals illustrates this phenomenon:

1. Ngozi na-ata anu too much

Ngozi eats too much meat

2. Kedu ka isi ere mango?

How do you sell mango?

3. A agam enyeghachi gi ego ahu the moment I get it.

I will refund you that money the moment I get it.

4. Ada ahu ga-eme ya affect permanently

That fall will affect him/her permanently.

5. I saw the cup n’okpuru table.

I saw the cup under the table

Code-mixing therefore is more pronounced when the participants in speech situation are from the same bilingual background.

However, Akindele and Adegbite (1999:37) states that code-switching and code-mixing are so much inter-related in such a way that the later may trigger of the former and that it is very difficult to separate the two types. They also opine that the speaker who code-switches / mixes is not conscious of the fact that he is code-mixing or code-switching. They distinguish between situational and formal code-switching as well as among other sub-types like inter-sentential and intra-sentential code mixing.

1.8.2c.     INTERFERENCE OF L₁ ON L₂

This refers to those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language (Akindele and Adegbite (1999:38), Opara S. C. (1999:18) defines interference as the trace left by someone’s native language upon the foreign language he has acquired or the influences of the mother tongue on the individual acquiring or learning a second or foreign language.

In other words, interference is a term, which refers to a situation whereby two different languages overlap. In such a situation, the linguistic systems of one of the languages are transferred into the other in the process of producing the latter, which is the second or the target language. For instance, English and Igbo, can be regarded as two different languages that overlap. In an attempt by an Igbo English bilingual to speak the language, the system of the Igbo language – grammar, lexis, phonology and semantics are transferred into those of English.  In interference, one of the two or more languages in use in a speech community is dominant. The features of the dominant language are transferred to the subordinate or target languages at the phonological, lexical, and grammatical and discourse levels.

Two types of interference can be distinguished. The first type is the ‘proactive’ interference. This is an interference phenomenon that helps in the acquisition of the target language. This is called positive transfer or facilitation. The other type of interference is the ‘Retroactive’ type. This type retards the process of the acquisition of the target language. It is also called Negative transfer or interference.

There are many types of interference they include: Phonological interference, morphological interference, grammatical interference and semantic interference.

 

Phonological Interference

Some phonemes, which are present in the English language, are absent in our mother tongues. The Igbo language has eight vowel phonemes – /a, e, i, i, o, o, u, u/ whereas English language has twelve: /i: i, e, æ, a: :I⊃, ⊃: , u:, u, ⋀, Ʒ:, ∂/.  English in addition to vowels has eight diphthongs (double vowel sounds) /ei, ai, ⊃i, ∂u, au, i∂, e∂, u∂/and three triphthongs (three vowel sounds: /ei∂,  au∂, ai∂/.

Igbo language has no triphthong but unknown to many it has six diphthongs known as “Udamkpi”. They are /ia, ie, uo, io, uo, io/

Examples of these “udamkpi” diphthongs in words are:

ia      as     in      ahia   (market)     bia  (come)

ie      as     in      rie     (eat)   ehihie   (afternoon)

io      as     in      diochi  (palm wine taper)

io      as     in      rio     (ask) aririo   (prayer/begging)

uo     as     in      tigbuo  (kill)  tufuo  (throw away)

uo     as in abuo  (two)   puo (go)

Ofomata, C. (2002:223).

This problem of interference is further compounded by the fact that English vowels have been further divided into long and short vowels. The long vowels are:/i:, a:, u:, 3: ⊃: while the short vowels are: /ii, e, ae, ۸, l⊃, u, ∂. Consequently, Igbo speakers of English find it difficult to distinguish between the pronunciation of words such as sit, and seat, bad and bard, fist and feast.

The native language, Igbo also interferes with English in other areas for example, some Igbo speakers of English find it difficult to pronounce the letter ‘s’. They say ‘ch’ for ‘s’ for example miss becomes ‘mich’ others cannot distinguish between ‘l’ and ‘r’. they pronounce schoor for school. Certain letters are dropped and replaced by others, even within the same language, differences in dialects cause varying degrees of interference. For example, the uneducated man from Onitsha realizes the word ‘load’ /L∂ud/ as ‘road/ /r∂ud/, lorry/lori/as rorry/rori/ e.g. The rorry is lunning arong the load.

Areas of interference for Yoruba speakers are also predicted here. He will encounter problems in the production of sounds that are not present in Yoruba but are present in English sound system, as in these consonant sounds.

/θ, ð/                  /t/  for example, ti k/  for  / θiŋk/ ‘think’

/p/                /k^hp/   for example,  /k^hpik/      for /pik/       ‘pick’.

/z/                /s/      for example, siŋk/          for /ziŋk/     ‘zinc’

/v/                /f/       for example,  /feri/         for /veri/      ‘very’

The sounds /θ/ and /ð/ which are not present in the Yoruba alphabet are realized as /t/,  /p/ is pronounced as  /k^hp/.

/z/     as     /s/     and   /v/    as     /f/.  Consonant clusters like  /ch/, /t∫/ in words like ‘chicken’,  change and chin-chin are pronounced as ‘sikini’,  ‘sendz’ and ‘sin-sin’.

Oyeleye (1996:22) remarks that the sound /٨/ appears a particularly difficult sound for most Nigerians who tend to use a half open vowel namely /o/ sound for English /٨/ as found in words like but, cut, hut, must etc.  /∂/ (schwa sound) is another difficult sound to pronounce. It is a long weak vowel found in words like above, away etc.

Researchers on sound discrimination based on observation revealed that this pattern of pronunciation runs across other native languages in Nigeria as shown below.

Words (English)        Words (Hausa)

Very                   /feri/          for     /veri/

Plenty                 /flenti/       for     /plenti/

Pure                   /fju∂r/        for     /pju∂r/

Federal               /pedrl/       for     /fedr∂l/

Words (English)        Words  (Calabar)

Goat                   coat/k∂ut/  for     /g∂ult

Love                   rove/rov/    for     /L٨v/

Naira                  naila/nil∂/   for     /nairæ/

Champion           jampion/jampjon/ for /t∫æmpi∂n/

Jacket                 yacket/jæket/      for     /d3ækit/

Indigenous languages do not have certain English vowels which they substitute with vowels in their mother-tongues that are fairly close to them.  Example of such vowels are:

/∂e/  as     in man, catch      Nigerians pronounce.

/a:/   as in far, arm               these two sounds as /ą/

/٨/    as     in      cut,   love   Nigerians pronounce

/3:/   as     in      nurse, word        the two sounds as /lכ/

/∂/    as     in      ∂way, above       Nigerian pronounce

this sound as   /a/

/ei/    as     in      gate,  eight         pronounced as  /e/

/∂u/  as     in      goat,           go            pronounced as    /o/.

Examples of Consonants that are usually substituted or omitted by some Nigerian /Igbo bilinguals include:

/θ/    as in ‘think’, ‘both’ which is pronounced as /t/.

/ð/    as in ‘that’,  ‘father’  pronounced as /d/.

/h/    as in ‘house’, ‘behind’ which is omitted completely by some Yoruba speakers e.g. pronounced as ‘ouse’.

/t∫/   as in ‘church’, ‘charge’, which is pronounced by some Nigerian speakers as  /∫/.

/Ʒ/    as  in ‘treasure’, ‘measure’ pronounced as  /j/ and sometimes          /s/.

Insertion of vowels where there are consonant clusters in English. This is because, the syllable structure of Nigerian language is usually CV (consonant followed by a vowel, CVCV-(Consonant + vowel + consonant + vowel) or VC V (Vowel + consonant + vowel) and VCVCV (vowel + Consonant + vowel + consonant + vowel).

For example:   

CV              –       gi               –       you

CVCV          –      Bata           –       come  in.

VCV           –      aka            –       hand

VCVCV       –       akuku         –       side.

Whereas the English syllable structure can accommodate as many as three consonants before a vowel and four consonants after a vowel (C 0-3)  V (C 0-4). Uzoma  I. Nwachukwu (2007:40).

This interference results in mispronunciation of such words as:

Stream / stri:m/  pronounced by Nigeria bilinguals as  / sitirim/

Breathed / bri: ðd/ pronounces as  /birited/.

Bread /bred/ pronounced as / bered / clothed /klauðd/ pronounced as /kuloted/.

The use of wrong stress, rhythm and intonation as a result of different speech systems. English word – stress consist of strong and weak stress whereas Nigerian language are tonal consisting of high, low and mid or level tones which are used to distinguish word meaning. For example in Igbo language we have:

Oke   –       HH    –       male

Oke   –       LH     –       rat

Oke   –       LL     –       share

Oke   –       HL     –       boundary.

The problem Nigerians have with English word stress is that it is not always predictable for example, the word ‘export’ can be stressed on the first syllable when it is a noun (export) and on the second syllable when it is a verb (export), but it will be risky to generalize. For example, the word ‘comfort’ is stressed on the first syllable as a noun and also as a verb. Similarly, the word ‘cement’ is stressed on the second syllable (cement) both as a noun and as a verb.

With respect to rhythm, English sentences are stress-timed whereas our indigenous languages are syllable-timed. Being stress-timed means that in English speech, there is a tendency to move from one stressed syllable to another at regular interval of time. This makes English speech relatively faster than our indigenous languages that are syllable – timed.

Furthermore, English is an intonational language in which the speaker tends to move from one phrase to another rather than moving from one word to another which slows down speech.

Intonation in English has a system in which there are characteristic intonation patterns. For example, statements and commands are said with the falling tone whereas polar – questions are said with the rising tone as:

(i)     Mary is a student         (statement)

(ii)     Sit down                      (command)

(iii)    Are you a student?       (Polar-question)

The general tendency is that Nigerians speak English the way they speak their mother tongues.

Grammatical Interference

At the grammatical level, lack of correspondence between systems (such as article, pronoun, tense, concord, etc) is the main source of interference.

(i)     Article omission: Nigerian languages do not have the articles system which gives rise to such ungrammatical sentences as:

“I have  problem” (instead of I have a problem”)

“She killed snake” (instead of she killed a / the snake”)

(ii)     Non-separation of gender: In Igbo, for example, there is no gender distinction in the use of a pronoun.

For example:

O na-eri ihe (he/she is eating).

The above sentence is the reason for such common grammatical mistakes among Nigerians as in this sentence below.

“Mary is my sister, He is a doctor”.

Semantic or lexical interference

At the semantic or lexical level, interference occurs mainly as a result of transliteration in which learners first think in their native languages and try to translate their first language idioms into English. This gives rise to such expressions as the following:

1. I am coming (meaning- I’ll shortly be back).
2. We don’t hear English (meaning-we don’t understand English)

• Come now now (meaning-come immediately)

1. Are you not hearing the smell? (meaning “don’t you perceive the odour?”)
2. I’m seeing you (meaning- I can see you)

Nwachukwu U.I. (2007:43)

Lexical interference can further be described under five categories identified below (Akindele and Adegbite (1999-41-43)

Semantic Contrast

Some items in Nigerian English (NE) may have equivalent items in native English but express different meanings through them for example, the item “Masquerade” has to do with ancestral cult worship in Nigerian English but it means ‘deceit’ or hiding one’s identity in Native English.

Semantic Extension

Some items in Nigerian English may have equivalence in native English but express a wider meaning in Nigerian English for example, chief, brother, father and mother. In addition to its meaning in Native English, ‘chief’ in N.E. is a social title awarded to important personalities. Also ‘father’ does not refer to a male parent alone but any adult male person of comparable age to one’s father.

Semantic Transfer

Some items in Nigerian English (NE) are present in native English but the concepts they express in the former are absent in the later.

For example:

Obi’s wives (suggesting polygamy) and

Bride price meaning (dowry paid by bride’s parents)

In mixed transfer, items partly from the mother tongue and partly from English are conjugated or collocated for example ‘bukateria’ (buka in Yoruba means ‘canteen’) while ‘teria’ is clipped from English ‘cafeteria’. Kiakia bus refers to a fast-moving bus or minibus.

 

Gwongworo bus (big bus in Igbo English)

Outright transfer can be observed in loaning or borrowing of items, for example, Eba, Obi, Alhaji, Walahitalahi..fa. In loan translation, mother tongue word is reproduced directly e.g. water has gone again, open the tap, tight friend, good talk, afternoon meal etc.

Coinages (Loan Creation): Some items are peculiar to Nigerian English but denotes N.E. experiences which are also present in native English for example: long-leg (nepotism) go-slow (traffic jam), been-to (someone who has been to overseas), cash madam (wealthy woman), to spray money (spend extravangtly or less lavishly) sugar daddy/mummy (a much older male or female lover).

Discourse Interference

This is more pronounced at the level of greetings. For instance, the system of greetings in Igbo differs from that of English. An Igbo-English bilingual transfers the system of greetings in Igbo to English. Igbo people like the Hausa or Yoruba have greetings for every human endeavour.

For example:

Appreciation                      Interference equivalent

A:     I meela/Ndewo            A:     Thank you

B:     Daalu                          B:     Thank you

For bereavement

A:     Ndo, karaobi/oma        Accept my sympathy

B:     O! imeela/daalu           Yes thank you

At work

Jisike/Daalu oru                    Weldone

To welcome somebody

A:     Nnoo/I biala                You are welcome

B:     O! daalu                      Thank you

The system of greetings is also observed through the production of lengthy greetings in place of casual greetings which characterize the English discourse, that is, in place of “Hello/Hello”, the Igbo-English bilingual goes further to say “How are you?”, “How is your family?”, “How are your children?” etc.

Example:

Igbo Greetings                  Interference Igbo-English

A:     Deede, I boola chi        A:     brother good morning

B:     Kedu ka unu di?           B:     How are you?

B:     O/Anyi di nma              B:     I/We are fine

A:     Ole otu ezi na ulo di?    A:     How is the family?

B:     Anyi di nma                 A:     We are fine/alright

A:     Ole otu umuaka gi di?   A:     How are your children?

B:     Ha dicha nma              B:     They are all fine

A:     Kelerem ha nile            B:     Greet all of them for me

B:     Gaa nke oma               B:     Good-bye

1.8.2d.     CODE BORROWING

Borrowing can be defined as the occasional use of items from one language in utterances of another language (Akindele and Adegbite, 1999:43). This arises out of the fact that there is no language in the world that can be regarded as self-sufficient and as such every language borrows from another.

Borrowing cannot be regarded as a feature of bilingualism or multilingualism alone, it is also a feature of monolingualism. In monolingual speech in English, we have such lexical items as ‘resume’, ‘elite’ which are borrowed into English. In the Nigerian context, each of the indigenous languages borrowed from one another e.g. the words ‘wahala’, and ‘seria’ are borrowed from Hausa into Yoruba.

In terms of the English language, several English words have been borrowed into the indigenous languages for instance, in the Igbo language such words as redio (radio), windo (window), pilo (pillow), tebulu (table), moto (motor), kopu (cup) etc. Also, some Igbo items feature in the English of Igbo-English bilinguals for example: Ogiri (native seasoning), ochu (committing a kind of offence that the land abhors), ukwa (a kind of food), ogbunigwe (war weapon) etc.

1.8.2.e     BILINGUALISM-BICULTURALISM

It has already been said that language reflects, expresses and records culture. The possession of a language inevitably means the acquisition of a culture. However, while we can say that a monolingual person is essentially monocultural not all bilinguals can be said to be bicultural (except a coordinate bilingual) since bilingualism and biculturalism are not co-extensive) (Cf Haugen, 1956) in Akindele and Adegbite, 1999:44).

Indeed, a monolingual person may be bicultural in some circumstances for example, some second or third generation immigrants with two cultures in the U.S.A. The extent of bilingualism may determine extent of biculturalism, but not always. Relationship between the extent of bilingualism and biculturalism can be demonstrated in four ways of the High (H), Low (L), scales. Thus H-H, H-L, and L-L.

Cultures like language come in contact too. For example, an immigrant may experience “culture shock” as he encounters differences in a new culture as eating habits, courting behaviuor, child rearing, family, organization, religious beliefs etc. However, the immigrant will get out of this shock after he has undergone the process of acculturation in the new environment.

A speakers’ purpose of learning a second language can determine his acquisition of the second language. If he aims at identification and assimilation, he becomes both bilingual and bicultural; but biculturalism may end up being transitional towards monoculturalism in the second language. Also children and youths who are bicultural may rebel against the language and culture of their parents in an attempt to show civilization.

Therefore, it is the persistent decline in the proficiency of the English  of tertiary students in a bilingual or multilingual situation that prompted the background of this study.

• STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

An important feature of bilingualism is that it is a consequence of language in contact which deals with the direct and indirect influence of one language on the other.

The imposition of English language in Nigeria by the colonial masters institutionalized bilingualism. English language functions as official language and a lingua franca in Nigeria and is learnt as a second language (L2) among other indigenous languages yet the level of proficiency is still below standard. This problem is of great concern to the linguists and researchers. This research is therefore an attempt to investigate the effects of bilingualism on the English of tertiary students.

• PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

In view of the fact that Bilingualism is the use of the two languages by an individual or a speech community, the researcher wants to investigate the effects Bilingualism has on the English of tertiary students learning  English language both positively and negatively and also to proffer solutions that will help in achieving proficiency in the language.

• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This study is set to investigate the effects of bilingualism on the English of tertiary students. It is believed that the researcher findings will:

1. expose the learners of English language to areas of difficulty or interference which hinders the achievement of proficiency in the language and possibly proffer solutions to these problems.
2. aid English language teachers to lay emphasis on areas of difficulty and drill the learners on the correct forms.
3. create awareness to the learners, teachers, society and the users of the language.
4. enlighten the syllabus designers, text book writers and curriculum planners on more areas of emphasis in order to ameliorate the negative effects
5. also enlighten the government on deploying qualified and competent teachers in the teaching of the language.
   • RESEARCH QUESTIONS

This research is designed to find answers to the following questions:

1. Does bilingualism aid the learning of English of tertiary students?
2. Does code-switching and code-mixing affect the English of tertiary students?
3. How does mother tongue (MT or L1) interfere with the acquisition of proficiency in the learning of English of tertiary students?
4. Does code-borrowing affect English language learning?
5. Does culture affect tertiary students’ English?

• DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This is delimited to the study of the effects of Bilingualism on the English of tertiary students. The emphasis is on the positive and negative effects of bilingualism on the English of tertiary students. The population of the study is made up of students from the Department of English and Literary Studies, Imo State University and Department of English Language Studies, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri.

• LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study is carried out through the administration and collection of questionnaire by the researcher. Due to time and financial constraints, the study will be restricted to two tertiary institutions.

---

Pages:  171

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF         

Chapters: 1-5                                 

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTRACT

The study is focused on linguistic style and discourse strategies in GSM advertising and sales promotion text messages in Nigeria. A total of fifty four (54) undergraduates of Imo State University, Owerri, users of MTN and Globacom Nigeria were sampled using stratified random sampling; and textual samples were gotten from sales promotion text messages sent to these subscribers. The data were subjected to textual analysis for any unique stylistic features and discourse strategies using foregrounding theory. It was observed that linguistic styles such as pretentious diction, exaggeration, weasel words, passive voice and discourse strategies like slanting, euphemism, deceptive expressions, plain folk appeal, slogan and evasion; and figurative languages are used to appeal to the needs and desires of subscribers thereby controlling their thoughts and actions to utilize the telecom services and enlist in the promotion draws. Linguistic deviations were also observed helped to create the stylistic effect of foregrounding and some linguistic elements give the needed prominence. The researcher therefore concludes that MTN and Globacom exploit some functional and stylistic patterns and discourse strategies for effective marketing and increased sales.

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Telecom advertising is the marketing procedure that is used to promote sales by triggering excitement and granting various incentives to customers, thereby persuading them to make a decision. Advertising and sales promotions are the main methods utilized in selling telecomm service to consumers in Nigeria. ‘Advertising positions a product, service against that of competitors to convey a message to consumers and to enhance its value in the consumer’s eyes whereas sales promotion gives incentives which are short term for the customers or subscribers to take on the service available’ (Ogungbe 36-49).

Telecommunication promotional campaign is often put together to persuade consumers that the products and services provided by the service operators are necessary for their satisfaction. Marketers attempt to convince consumer/subscribers by presenting draws, stringing to the rise of lucky winners of numerous gift items like power generators, refrigerators, cars, television sets, recharge cards, cell phone and cash awards. These are the kinds of incentive Nigerians look forward to owning; therefore lots of consumers participate in the draw which considerably increases sales. Consequently, the telecomm sales objective is generally met, which is unlike other sales promotions that is to rise above the actual quota (Ogungbe 36-49).

Telecomm sales promotions function directly with advertising which is a major part of marketing. It however incorporates a large number of techniques which includes special price reduction, (GLO to GLO calls), competitions (projection in the course of a football match), games, debates, premiums, gifts and lotteries. The promotional messages are generally passed across to consumers in a persuasive and convincing style and language via text messages, newspapers, television and radio (Ogungbe 36-49). In order to affect these within the shortest time and space available, the advertiser tilts the language items in such a way as to suit his purpose. This results in the linguistic style of advertising.

Language and discourse are not mere instruments of communication but are loaded with power; they are action –oriented, they have the ability to influence or control peoples action and thought. In fact language as well as discourse is ‘a powerful tool which allows human beings to articulate the sequence of intentions, decisions, responses, acts and consequences that make up human lives’ (Bradford 93). In other words, seldom are ‘non- experts conscious of the real power of language to lead (or mislead) and the effect of the user’s choice of discourse style on readers or neither is the awareness general that human perception, conviction, thoughts and actions are shaped by language and discourse styles’ (Malcolm 46). Therefore, with the belief that social and economic liberation could begin with the awareness of the power of language to lead and mislead, this research examines the patterns of language and discourse styles employed by telecomm business managers or marketers in Nigeria and tries to highlight their functional value with the hope of fostering critical linguistic awareness.

Statement of the Problem 

Network service providers use various linguistic styles and discourse strategies for marketing of their products without appreciating fully the effects of this promotional strategy on consumer’s final purchase. The study is set to identify various linguistic styles and discourse strategies employed by MTN and GLO for the effective marketing of their products.

 Purpose of Study

The aim of telecom promotional advertising is customer acquisition and retention. They employ specific discourse strategies and linguistic devices to appeal and persuade the consumers. Thus, the aim of this study is as follows:

• To examine the lexical choices that are more prevalent in the MTN and GLO telecommunication sales promotion text messages.
• To examine the grammatical choices that are mostly used by these telecommunication sales promotion text messages.
• To identify the linguistic styles and discourse strategies mostly used by these telecommunication providers in their sales promotion.
• To examine how these choices promote or inhibit customers’ response in these telecommunication sales promotion messages in Nigeria.
• To examine the levels of linguistic deviation in telecommunication text messages.
• To examine the poetic languages in the sales promotion text messages.

Scope of the Study

This research is limited to the electronic media specifically MTN and GLO mobile phone sales promotion text messages. The data were drawn from both English, indigenous languages and pidgin advertisements. The pidgin and English data were analyzed on linguistic styles and discourse strategies that relate to the relevant messages.

Significance of the Study

Sales promotion is a promotional strategy that helps in sale of products as at when the manufacturers want. Meaning with sales promotion you can help sell your goods and services when you decide. A lot of companies, industries and organizations employ knowledgeable use of this tool and have outstanding output.

The telecom companies are not left out of this wave as there is a strict competition amongst brands and customers alike. Sales promotion has over the years helped in speeding up the selling process and maximized sales volume amongst users. Thus this research work will be of great significance to the telecom companies as they will be informed on the various strategies of sales promotion and how these strategies can be used to attain organizational performance as it pertains to her objectives. It will also enlighten them on the need to ensure the appropriate use of a particular strategy for a particular product. The upcoming unselected telecomm sectors will have a lot to learn from this study as they will not follow the band wagon in the use of sales promotion styles that will work against their organizational goals and objectives.

This study will provide literature for  linguist sand researches in English and literary studies on  sales promotion text messages and their style of language use. The study will also help the government make polices on the products and services enforced on the subscribers. The study will also enlighten the society at large about  the products being  advertised .

Area of the Study

The area under study covers, Imo State  University , Owerri metropolis, Imo  state.

Research Questions

1. What lexical choices are more prevalent in the MTN and GLO telecommunication sales promotion text messages?
2. What grammatical choices are mostly used by these telecommunication text messages?
3. What discourse strategies are used in the SMS?
4. What are the linguistic styles that are mostly used by these telecommunication providers in their sales promotion text messages?
5. How do these choices promote or inhibit customer’s response in these telecommunication sales promotion text messages in Nigeria?
6. What are the levels of linguistic deviations in the telecom sales promotion text messages?
7. What are the poetic languages in the sales promotion text messages?

---

Pages:  83

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF         

Chapters: 1-5                                 

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTACT

This work studied the use of proverbs in the novels of three writers Chinua Achebe, Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie. It examines their similarities, and differences in their use of proverbs and how the new writer Chimamanda Adichie imitate the older ones. This work, depicts how proverbs enrich African Literature and its importance in speech. The work is divided into five chapters. Chapter one introduces proverbs and its importance in speech. Chapter two dwells on what other writers have written about proverbs. Chapter three is on the use of proverbs in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart. The work revealed that Achebe made use of Proverbs in almost every paragraph of the pages of his work. Chapter four is on the use of proverbs in Akachi Adimora’s The Last of the Strong Ones, and Chimamanda Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus, and the analysis of their proverbs. Chapter Five which is the last chapter, is the summary. It is the comparative analysis of the three African writers work on proverbs.                                                                               

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background To The Study

This chapter dwells on the importance of proverbs to the users and the different definitions of proverbs by different scholars.

Proverb is a very important speech art in Africa especially in the Igbo society. In Igbo society, proverb is so highly regarded that it can hardly be avoided in a speech, especially speeches that are made by elders. It is seen and considered to be a means through which wisdom is expressed. In Igbo land, words are not considered rich when they are not dully laced with proverbs.

Most writers of African Literature find it impossible to avoid the use of proverbs in their various works because to them, proverb is the easiest way to drive points home as well as make the speech sound interesting and by this attract the attention of the readers. Proverbs make the meaning in an expression clearer and also more understandable as they address the immediate situation. Most of the writers make use of proverbs in their works to show native intelligence and competence. Any work rendered in African traditional setting that is not garnished and embellished with proverbs is not regarded highly because proverbs contain societal values, experience, norms, ideas, and resources which are used to explore things since it is said that without society, there is no language and without language there is no proverb.

Writers like Chinua Achebe and Akachi Adimora, have been identified as significant writers of the African novel because of their use of proverbs in their works. Even Chimamanda Adichie and other new writers have followed this step so as to make their works attractive to their leaders.

AIM OF THE PROBLEM

This study attempts to evaluate the use of proverbs by three remarkable African writers Chinua Achebe, Chimamanda Adichie and Akachi Adimora Ezeigbo and in their books selected for the project. Essentially, the research hopes to make a value statement on their efforts even as it exposes the invaluable use of proverbs in African novels. Research will also assess the influence of gender on the use of proverbs.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this research is to compare a male African writer and two female contemporary writers to know how they used proverbs in their work to achieve their different purposes. The research is to also explore why modern female writers do not make much use of proverbs and also how some of the new writers imitate the old writers in their works as in the use of proverbs in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart Akachi Adimora’s Last of The Strong Ones and Chimamanda Adichie’s Purple Hibiscus.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

The importance of this research is to examine how a male Chinua Achebe and two female writers Akachi Adimora and Chimamanda Adichie have used proverbs to achieve their different aims. This research work will provide reasons that show the inevitability of the use of proverbs even by modern writers in their works. It will provide a seminal study of proverbs in the works of female writers.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework of this work is the formalistic and sociological approaches, since sociological theories are statements of how and why particular facts about the social world are related. Proverbs started same time with language. Where there is no society, there is no language and without language, there is no proverb. Proverb is part of oral tradition; therefore, African society is one that is rooted in orature before written form of literature became poplar. Orature is handed down from one generation to the other through the forefathers.

Although there are many forms of oral literature or orature   in African culture such as myth, legends and  folktales; proverb is the most cherished because of the wisdom and truth contained in it. Africans especially the Igbo society, so much value proverbs that they can not communicate fluently without proverbs because they garnish their expressions through proverbs in order to bring out the culture value, wisdom, moral, norm, and experiences of their societies.

Igbo society can not do without proverbs and being that every one of their      activities are traditional, there is no possibility of making a speech in any Igbo gathering without using proverbs. For instance, in traditional marriages, New Yam Festival, Breaking of kola nut, rituals etc., proverbs are used to address people on these occasions. The blessing of kola nut in Igbo land without proverbs is not valued. Proverbs must be said. Without  proverb,  It is regarded as if the prayer has not reached the ancestors. The Ozo chieftaincy and title taking ceremonies are also oral performances that involve the use of proverbs especially during the making of incantations.

Proverbs could be viewed from the formalist approach. This is because according to Jasper Onuekwusi in proverbs, language is exploited artistically. This expresses the point that the users of proverbs use it to bring out the beauty of expressions. These users know how to, and when to use and applyproverbs. They can improvise on it and also manipulate it since they have the idea, the knowledge and experience of what their culture is all about. They beautify their speech or work to show their level of mastery of proverbs just as Chinua Achebe did in his African novels.

METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

This work, is aimed to assess the relevance of proverbs in selected novels. It will consider texts from the library to draw ideas from which will be dually interpreted. However, discussions and supports by critics on related issues will be used.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This research work will be limited as a result of insufficient source of materials. The materials needed are not all available even when I have a little money to buy them.

The limitations by financial challenge as well as time factor hinders an elaborate investigation and will cause delay in the research. The researcher hopes to make sure that the aim is achieved despite the problems faced.

---

Pages:  50

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF        

Chapters: 1-5                                 

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTRACT

The study is focused on linguistic style and discourse strategies in GSM advertising and sales promotion text messages in Nigeria. A total of fifty four (54) undergraduates of Imo State University, Owerri, users of MTN and Globacom Nigeria were sampled using stratified random sampling; and textual samples were gotten from sales promotion text messages sent to these subscribers. The data were subjected to textual analysis for any unique stylistic features and discourse strategies using foregrounding theory. It was observed that linguistic styles such as pretentious diction, exaggeration, weasel words, passive voice and discourse strategies like slanting, euphemism, deceptive expressions, plain folk appeal, slogan and evasion; and figurative languages are used to appeal to the needs and desires of subscribers thereby controlling their thoughts and actions to utilize the telecom services and enlist in the promotion draws. Linguistic deviations as also observed helped to create the stylistic effect of foregrounding and linguistic elements give the needed prominence. The researcher therefore concludes that MTN and Globacom exploit some functional and stylistic patterns and discourse strategies for effective marketing and increased sales.

 

 

 

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

Telecom advertising is the marketing procedure that is used to promote sales by triggering excitement and granting various incentives to customers, thereby persuading them to make a decision. Advertising and sales promotions are the main methods utilized in selling telecomm service to consumers in Nigeria. ‘Advertising positions a product, service against that of competitors to convey a message to consumers and to enhance its value in the consumer’s eyes whereas sales promotion gives incentives which are short term for the customers or subscribers to take on the service available’ (Ogungbe 36-49).

Telecommunication promotional campaign is often put together to persuade consumers that the products and services provided by the service operators are necessary for their satisfaction. Marketers attempt to convince consumer/subscribers by presenting draws, stringing to the rise of lucky winners of numerous gift items like power generators, refrigerators, cars, television sets, recharge cards, cell phone and cash awards. These are the kinds of incentive Nigerians look forward to owning; therefore lots of consumers participate in the draw which considerably increases sales. Consequently, the telecomm sales objective is generally met, which is unlike other sales promotions that is to rise above the actual quota (Ogungbe 36-49).

Telecomm sales promotions function directly with advertising which is a major part of marketing. It however incorporates a large number of techniques which includes special price reduction, (GLO to GLO calls), competitions (projection in the course of a football match), games, debates, premiums, gifts and lotteries. The promotional messages are generally passed across to consumers in a persuasive and convincing style and language via text messages, newspapers, television and radio (Ogungbe 36-49). In order to affect these within the shortest time and space available, the advertiser tilts the language items in such a way as to suit his purpose. This results in the linguistic style of advertising.

Language and discourse are not mere instruments of communication but are loaded with power; they are action –oriented, they have the ability to influence or control peoples action and thought. In fact language as well as discourse is ‘a powerful tool which allows human beings to articulate the sequence of intentions, decisions, responses, acts and consequences that make up human lives’ (Bradford 93). In other words, seldom are ‘non- experts conscious of the real power of language to lead (or mislead) and the effect of the user’s choice of discourse style on readers or neither is the awareness general that human perception, conviction, thoughts and actions are shaped by language and discourse styles’ (Malcolm 46). Therefore, with the belief that social and economic liberation could begin with the awareness of the power of language to lead and mislead, this research examines the patterns of language and discourse styles employed by telecomm business managers or marketers in Nigeria and tries to highlight their functional value with the hope of fostering critical linguistic awareness.

Statement of the Problem

Network service providers use various linguistic styles and discourse strategies for marketing of their products without appreciating fully the effects of this promotional strategy on consumer’s final purchase. The study is set to identify various linguistic styles and discourse strategies employed by MTN and GLO for the effective marketing of their products. The study will evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies adopted. The study will also examine the effect of language of sales promotion on consumer purchase. The study will also highlight the grammatical and lexical words used to attract the subscribers. The study will also examine how context help in effective marketing of products.

Purpose of Study

The aim of telecom promotional advertising is customer acquisition and retention. They employ specific discourse strategies and linguistic devices to appeal and persuade the consumers. Thus, the aim of this study is as follows:

• To examine the lexical choices that is more prevalent in the MTN and GLO telecommunication sales promotion text messages.
• To examine the grammatical choices that are mostly used by these telecommunication sales promotion text messages.
• To identify the linguistic styles and discourse strategies mostly used by these telecommunication providers in their sales promotion.
• To examine how these choices promote or inhibit customers’ response in these telecommunication sales promotion messages in Nigeria.
• To examine the levels of linguistic deviation in telecommunication text messages.
• To examine the poetic languages in the sales promotion text messages.

Scope of the Study

This research is limited to the electronic media specifically MTN and GLO mobile phone sales promotion text messages. The data were drawn from both English, indigenous languages and pidgin advertisements. The pidgin and English data were analyzed on linguistic styles and discourse strategies that relate to the relevant messages.

Significance of the Study

Sales promotion is a promotional strategy that helps in sale of products as at when the manufacturers want. Meaning with sales promotion you can help sell your goods and services when you decide. A lot of companies, industries and organizations employ knowledgeable use of this tool and have outstanding output.

The telecom companies are not left out of this wave as there is a strict competition amongst brands and customers alike. Sales promotion has over the years helped in speeding up the selling process and maximized sales volume amongst users. Thus this research work will be of great significance to the telecom companies as they will be informed on the various strategies of sales promotion and how these strategies can be used to attain organizational performance as it pertains to her objectives. It will also enlighten them on the need to ensure the appropriate use of a particular strategy for a particular product. The upcoming unselected telecomm sectors will have a lot to learn from this study as they will not follow the band wagon in the use of sales promotion styles that will work against their organizational goals and objectives.

This study will enable linguists know that sales promotion text messages have its style of language use. The study will also help the government make polices on the products and services enforced on the subscribers. The study will also help the society at large see the advertised products as a form of spreading information.

Area of the Study

The area under study covers Nnamdi Azikiwe University (Permanent and Temporary site) Awka metropolis, Anambra state.

Research Questions

• What lexical choices are more prevalent in the MTN and GLO telecommunication sales promotion text messages?
• What grammatical choices are mostly used by these telecommunication text messages?
• What discourse strategies are used in the SMS?
• What are the linguistic styles that are mostly used by these telecommunication providers in their sales promotion text messages?
• How do these choices promote or inhibit customer’s response in these telecommunication sales promotion text messages in Nigeria?
• What are the levels of linguistic deviations in the telecom sales promotion text messages?
• What are the poetic languages in the sales promotion text messages?

---

Pages:  84

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF        

Chapters: 1-5

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTRACT

The subject matter of this research work is to examine the effect of Nigerian Pidgin English on the academic performance among National Open University of Nigeria Students in Benin Study Centre. The main objective of this research work was to find out the impact of Nigerian Pidgin English on students communication and academic performance. The design used for the study is a descriptive survey method. The numbers of students used are one hundred and twenty-five (125) from National Open University Benin Study Centre. Four research questions were formulated to guide the study, from which the questionnaire was designed. From the analyzed data, it showed that students frequently use Pidgin in their daily communication within the school premises, lack of effective usage of English language has prompted student to use Pidgin in their communication and the use of Nigeria pidgin by male and female students has encourage wrong use and expression of English language. It was recommended that Staff and students in tertiary institution across the federation should engage the use of Standard English language in the communication rather than use of Nigeria Pidgin. In addition, the use of Nigerian Pidgin by students during official communication should be discouraged by implementing laws that can combat wrong use of English Language in the school environment.

 CHAPTER ONE

1.0      INTRODUCTION

1.1       Background of the study

Attitudes towards language or language behavior implicate social meanings relative to social norms in a given speech community. As demonstrated in the literature, language attitude study is not only a way of understanding how language is used, for example, as a symbol of identity or in-group membership, it also helps to illuminate the social importance of a given code or language (see Adegbija, 1994; Ihemere 2006; Salami 1991). Attitudinal studies of language are also important to linguistics because they could help to explain language maintenance and shift, which are apparently influenced by whether the change or maintenance is favored or disfavored by members of the speech community (Mann 1993; 1998).

In Nigeria, Nigerian Pidgin used to be seen generally as the code of the non-literate as well as a bastardization of English and its use was, therefore, considered a mark of the level of one’s proficiency in English. Akande (2008) has noted, the sociolinguistic reality in Nigeria today is such that Nigerian Pidgin is spoken by university graduates, professors, lawyers and journalists. It has also been demonstrated that Nigerian Pidgin is not used only in informal settings but also in offices and other formal settings (Akande 2008). In other words, the claim that Nigerian Pidgin is the code of the non-literate does not seem to have validity as there are a lot of educated speakers in Nigeria who can use both Standard English and Nigerian Pidgin proficiently (Akande 2008).

It is quite interesting to note that what actually started as a contingency language between the  white  merchants,  who  later  turned  colonial  masters, and  their  black  traders  has  now become  an  elitist  campus  language-spoken  among  the  teeming  population  of  the  Nigerian students  in  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Thus,  at  common  rooms,  kiosks,  gossip  centres, viewing  centres, play grounds, rally  grounds, relaxation  joints,  movie grounds and a  host of other  meeting  points  where  and  when  students  are  relieved of  their  academic  routines,  they are seen interacting lively in Nigeria pidgin.

Nigeria as a  multilingual nation is  made up of different speech communities and diverse ethnic groups. Past studies on linguistic situation in Nigeria have brought to  the  fore  the  complexity  of  the  native  languages  in  the  country.  Bamgbose  and Okike cited in Ndiemele (2) put the figures of Nigerian indigenous languages to three hundred  and  seventy-four  (374)  and  four  hundred  (400)  languages  respectively.

Adegbija  claims  that there  are  over  five  hundred  (500)  languages  spoken  in  Nigeria (75). The glaring fact, therefore, is that Nigeria is a community made up of different ‘tongues’,  and  this,  to  a  great  extent,  necessitated  the  adoption  of  the  English language,  a colonial legacy, as both the official and second language  of the country. Predominant   among   these   languages   are   Igbo,   Yoruba,   Hausa   and   Nigerian Pidgin/Creole.  Apart  from  the  first  three  major  languages,  Pidgin/Creole is  very popular  in  Nigeria.  Ndimele  estimates  that  Nigerian  Pidgin  now  serves  as  a  native language  to  approximately  three  to  five  million  people  in  Nigeria  and  it  is  a  second language  (L2)  for  another  75  million  people  (4).  Jowit  confirms  the  popularity  of Nigerian Pidgin thus: “The situation today is that pidgin flourishes as a medium of inter-ethnic  communication,  especially  in  the  large  cities  with  many  non-indigenous residents  (Bendel,  Benin,  Port  Harcourt  e.tc)  or  throughout  states  with  small  many ethnic groups.

Nigeria as a  multilingual nation is  made up of different speech communities and diverse ethnic groups. Past studies on linguistic situation in Nigeria have brought to  the  fore  the  complexity  of  the  native  languages  in  the  country.  Bamgbose  and Okike cited in Ndiemele (2) put the figures of Nigerian indigenous languages to three hundred  and  seventy-four  (374)  and  four  hundred  (400)  languages  respectively. Adegbija  claims  that there  are  over  five  hundred  (500)  languages  spoken  in  Nigeria (75). The glaring fact, therefore, is that Nigeria is a community made up of different ‘tongues’,  and  this,  to  a  great  extent,  necessitated  the  adoption  of  the  English language,  a colonial legacy, as both the official and second language  of the country. Predominant   among   these   languages   are   Igbo,   Yoruba,   Hausa   and   Nigerian Pidgin/Creole.

Furthermore, it could be argued that Nigerian Pidgin has enhanced the propagation of national ideas, socio-cultural, linguistic and political developments as well as peace and unity in the country since it is the only language that both the educated and the uneducated, irrespective of their ethnic affinities, can identify with. The use of Nigerian Pidgin by Nigerians, however, has led to the growing status of the code in the country. In other words, Nigerian Pidgin has remained one of the languages with vitality in the society despite its unofficial recognition. Nonetheless, it has been observed that a large number of people across various sectors of the society including particularly those parents who are highly placed government officials, teachers, students in the universities tend to express disgust at its use by youths at home and school premises.

Pidgin is a contact language, and like all contact languages comes into being under  conditions  of  interaction  among  people  of  different  linguistic  backgrounds. Pidgins   usually   evolve   from   the   fusion   of   foreign   languages   and   indigenous languages. Crystal explained  that most of the  present day pidgins  grew up along the trade routes of the world especially in those parts where the British, French, Spanish, Portuguese  and  Dutch  built  up  their  empires. At  the  outset  of  pidgin,  it  has  few  words  and  few  simple  constructions. Interestingly, the syntax of pidgin can be quite unlike the languages from which terms were borrowed and modified

The objective of the study is to find out the extent to which Nigerian Pidgin is used or spoken among the students of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) in Benin Study Centre.

1.2       Statement of the problem

Students discuss or communicate very often among themselves just as lecturers do while imparting knowledge. In the university campuses therefore, a lot of communication take place. The language of communication is also as diverse as the many tribes of students that are present.  It will be expected therefore that different mother tongues will be employed in so doing. It is however known that students often make use of peculiar means of communicating such as the use of Nigerian Pidgin, code-switching and code-mixing which results from their bilingual nature.

To solve these lingering problems of the use of Nigerian Pidgin among students in higher institution, there is need to limit the use of Nigerian Pidgin in official communication which affects academic performance. The study will exploit how students use Nigeria Pidgin in their communication and studies.

1.3       Research Questions

To guide this study, the following questions will be answered;

1. How frequently do NOUN students use Nigerian Pidgin English?
2. Under what circumstances do NOUN students frequently use Nigerian Pidgin English?
3. To what extent do NOUN students use Nigerian Pidgin English in communicating with staff and students of NOUN?
4. Is there a gender difference in the use Nigerian Pidgin English among NOUN students?

1.4       Objectives of the Study

This work intends to examine how frequent NOUN students use Nigerian Pidgin and under what circumstances do NOUN students frequently use Nigerian Pidgin. Also the study seeks to find the extent Noun student’s use of Nigerian Pidgin in communicating with staff and students.

The study will also examine the gender difference in the use Nigerian Pidgin among NOUN students and determine if there is any significant difference among male and female students in the use of NP in communication.

1.5       Significant of the Study

This study is important because its results can go a long way to finding out the causes of students’ negative or positive academic performance and if Nigerian Pidgin contributes negatively or positively to the students social interaction.

This work will in no doubt contribute to one’s knowledge and it will highlight some issues in educational planning. It will be a guide for the Federal Government in planning for an effective educational system.

1.6       Scope and Limitations:

The scope of this project is on The Effect of the Nigerian Pidgin English on the Academic Performance of University Students in Nigeria. It will assess the extent NOUN students use Nigerian Pidgin English in communicating with staff and students. This research is limited to National Open University, Benin Study Centre even though the findings might be generic.

1.7       Definition of terms

Use: take, hold, or deploy (something) as a means of accomplishing or achieving something; employ; the action of using something or the state of being used for a purpose.

Nigeria Pidgin: is an English-based pidgin and creole language spoken as a lingua franca across Nigeria. The language is commonly referred to as “Pidgin” or “Brokin”.

Student: is a learner, or someone who attends an educational institution; children, teenagers, or adults who attend a school, but it may also be other people who attend a school.

---

Pages:  43

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF        

Chapters: 1-5

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References.

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the inconsistent usage of verbs among primary six pupils using primary schools in Owerri Municipal Council as case study. Four research questions and two hypotheses guided the study. Acculturation theory of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) was adopted as theoretical framework for the study. The study employed survey as its research design. The population consisted of 70 primary school teachers in Owerri Municipal Council. A sample of 70 respondents was selected which represent the entire population hence census sampling technique was adopted. Questionnaire titled Inconsistent Usage of Verbs among Primary Six Pupils Questionnaire (IUVPSPQ) was used as an instrument for data collection in order to elicit information from the respondents. The questionnaire was rated as Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and Strongly Disagree (SD) which represented 4points, 3points, 2points, and 1point respectively. Frequency table and mean were used to answer the research questions while chi-square was used to test the hypotheses. The findings among others revealed that primary school pupils find it difficult to identify the difference between present and past tenses because of their insensitive in adopting the principles guiding the use of auxiliary verbs. It was also revealed that inadequate teaching materials and teachers’ inability to vary the teaching techniques are associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils. Based on these findings, it was recommended among others that pupils should be encouraged to speak English language quite often in the classroom and outside the classroom to improve their ability to achieve communicative competence.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background to the Study

Language has been an integral part of human development and interactive process which manifests itself in verbal and symbolic forms. It serves as a vehicle of interaction through which individuals understand themselves. In a country such as Nigeria where English performs a major function as the official language, the need for proficiency is not only desirable but also absolutely necessary. The language is used not only as a medium of instruction from the upper primary school to the university level, but it is also taught as a subject at every level of education. It is little wonder then that English enjoys a prestigious position in Nigeria’s educational system.

According to Alufohai (2016:61), “one major area where the importance of English Language cannot be overlooked is its provision of access to education. It is the medium of instruction through which learners acquire knowledge and skills”. To the average Nigerian, therefore, proficiency in English Language skills especially in writing in today’s diverse society is the key to world’s proof of knowledge and universal culture. It is a gateway to success in the global economy. Gallagher (2006) posits that in an increasingly demanding world of literacy, the importance of ensuring students’ proficiency in writing skills cannot be overemphasized. The ability to write well, hitherto a luxury is now a dire necessity. Writing is vital to students’ developing literacy skills. In light of this, teaching students to write well should be top priority of a worthwhile education system. Gallagher (2006) asserts that a school that “teaches its students the curriculum without concurrently teaching them how to write well is a school that has failed”.

Consequently, it is obvious that no single sentence, spoken or written, is without a verb. A verb can be considered as one of the most important parts of a sentence. A verb is the main component of a predicate. Without it, there won’t be a sentence, just a bunch of words with an incomplete thought. Simply put, the verb is a part of speech which is used to demonstrate an action or a state of being. In order to be able to construct a grammatically correct sentence, it is very important that the pupils know how to write in the proper verb tense. The three basic forms of verbs predominantly taught or learnt in primary schools are past, present, and future. The first one obviously refers to an action that was already done, the second is for present action, and the third is for an action that will be done. These tenses are the most essential aspect of every verb. It is the tense that exposes the listener or reader to the state of the action of the verb. This significance has continued to manifest itself in the daily interaction of human life. Communication cannot take place without the definite tense aspect of a given verb in the sentence. Writer or speaker intention could hardly be realized or perceived without specified use of the tense. So, it is an unavoidable aspect in either spoken language or written English.

The tense of a verb indicates whether an action has occurred in the past, is occurring in the present or will occur in the future. It also indicates the continuity of an action or an explanation and the grammaticalization of location in time. Pryse (1984) asserts that tense is a means of differentiating in time the various thoughts and happenings that humans usually chronicle in words. According to her, it is the verb of the action word which is affected by tense. By this postulate, tenses are part of English sentence that need to be used accurately as every action could differ in time. Although the verb can be said to be complicated grammatically, the verb forms constitute the life wire of every construction. Therefore, any misuse or error in verb form leads to a distortion of the message. Palmer cited in Ibbi (2014) confirms this as he argues that:

for almost any language, the part that concerns the verb is the most difficult. Learning a language is to a very large degree learning how to operate the verbal forms of that language; and except in the case of those that are related historically, the pattern and structure of the verb in each language seems to differ considerably from those in every other.

Besides the present tense, students also have difficulties with the features of the past tense. They seem to demonstrate particular problem with the forms and meanings of certain irregular verbs such as “lie”, “lay”, “die”, “sting”, “hang” and “overthrow’. Wrong past tense for these verbs are therefore used (by adding “-ed”). Ibbi (2014) asserts that in addition to the difficulties with present and past tense, most of the students are not quite familiar with the different grammatical constructions for expressing future tense. The only grammatical construction used for future is “will/shall + infinitive”. As a result, they are unfamiliar with other ways of expressing future (events), most of the subjects have difficulties with the future perfect and future progressive tenses.

Furthermore, primary school students encounter some numbers of problems when using the present, past and future tenses. Jacob (2015) observes that one of the problems with the use of English verbs in Nigeria today is that students speak all kinds of what might be regarded as poor quality and uneducated English, while this appears to be an inevitable consequence of different speakers’ competences in the language. He was of the opinion that the correct use of the verb is not only desirable but also possible. Thus, the problem with the use of verbs is a grammatical one, although such grammatical deviation does not usually result in a serious unintelligibility, it is indicative of the user’s imperfect knowledge of the English language. English language teaching and learning must go simultaneously. Isyaku (2002:3) says that “the purpose of teaching is for learning to take place which is visualized in form of students’ achievement as a result of using effective teaching strategies”. In the same vain Denga (2001:73) has this to say “the unique characteristics of learning process is where the strategies of teaching English language is imparted and acquired”. The two scholars assert that the inductive activities of English aspect, rather than the conclusive were among many factors taking responsible to maintain verb tenses while speaking. It is widely known that many students loose precious marks due to their inconsistency in the use of verb tenses in writing. However, the gap in knowledge which this study tries to fill is to investigate the inconsistent usage of verbs among primary six pupils in Owerri.

1.2   Statement of the Problem

In the process of learning a second or foreign language, pupils are bound to make error. Pupils might make mistakes because they have not mastered the language rules. Teachers, parents and other stakeholders of education are worried about the level of inconsistency in pupils’ use of verb tenses which impede on their ability to communicate well or make correct sentences. It seems like these inconsistencies in the use of verb could be a product of lack of teaching materials and the teachers’ skills and expertise in the subject; hence, researchers like Brown (2002); and Aronoff & Fudeman (2006) affirmed that making errors are unavoidable problems in foreign and second language acquisition. The researcher’s experience in the study shows that there are preponderance of inconsistent use of verbs among the pupils as most of them find it difficult differentiate between the present, past, and future tenses. Thus, the problem which this study tends to address is to find out the causes of inconsistent usage of verb among primary six pupils in Owerri Municipal Council.

1.3   Purpose of the Study

The major purpose of this study is to investigate the inconsistent usage of verbs among primary six pupils in Owerri. Specifically, the study sought to:

1. Ascertain the extent to which verbs are used inconsistently among primary school pupils.
2. Identify the factors associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils.
3. Ascertain the extent to which inconsistent usage of verbs adversely affect pupils’ written and communication skills in primary schools.
4. Discover the possible solutions to the factors associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils.

1.4   Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will hopefully be of immense benefit to pupils/students, teachers, curriculum planners, and subsequent researchers in the following ways:

The outcome of this research will be of immense significance to pupils/students such that if the right teaching method is found to be efficacious, the students will gain because their interest and achievement in the right use of verbs and ultimately in the English language will improve. They will benefit from lessons that are not abstract but relevant to their communicative needs, thereby reducing the fear and boredom associated with the teaching of verbs as a segregated, abstract aspect of English. This, in turn, will motivate the students intrinsically to learn the language, thereby predisposing them to better achievement in English language examinations.

Also, the result of this study may create the need to organize workshops which will expose language teachers to emerging teaching methods and materials. The exposure of teachers to this approach may assist them to work out proper sequences of class activities to which they may expose their students. These activities will not only assist their students in learning the grammatical rules of English, but will also help them to communicate meaningfully in real life situations.

This study will also be significant to curriculum planners because they may see the need to include the new methods of teaching English Language as one of the innovative approaches in the teaching of verbs in the next review of the primary school curriculum. It will also help them to incorporate this approach in the curriculum used for training English language teachers in various levels of education in Nigeria in order to achieve positive cyclical effect, since the would-be English language teachers on graduation may be better disposed to use the same approach in teaching their students at the other levels of education.

It is expected that the findings of this study will add to the body of existing literature and serve as reference material to subsequent researchers who intend to carry out similar study in future.

1.5   Limitations and Delimitation of the Study

Limitations of the Study

Despite the researcher’s efforts to make this work a research work, certain problems still persist. One of the problems is that some of the respondents were reluctant and dishonest in filling the questionnaires until clarifications were made by the researcher on the reason for the research. The task of combining research project with other academic activities based on the time limits makes the work to be exorbitant for the researcher and as well, prone to errors. Moreover, the time frame for the writing and submitting of this research project is too short. There is also limited material on the topic of the study. This is to say that the existing literature on inconsistent usage of verbs were not readily available or limited (to the researcher), thereby restricting the researcher to make use of books mostly published in the internet and journals. Also, the financial constraints of the researcher constituted a problem which limited the sample size of this study. Because of that, limited number of samples was selected and small number of questionnaires distributed.

However, the constraints outlined and discussed above were encountered by the researcher while conducting this research project. Some of the constraints were natural, while some were man-made. There was however other sundry limitations that stood in the way of this research, but only the understandable ones have been featured in this sub-chapter in order not to make the work ambiguous. Despite the limitations encountered during the research, the researcher also made prudent efforts to make judicious use of the data at her disposal.

Delimitation of the Study

The study is restricted to all the male and female teachers in Owerri Municipal Council of Imo State. The study focuses on the extent to which inconsistent usage of verbs affects pupils written and communication skills, the factors associated with pupils’ inconsistent usage of verbs and the remedial measures to these associated factors.

1.6   Research Questions

The following research questions guided the study:

1. To what extent are verbs used inconsistently among pupils of primary school?
2. What are the factors associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils?
3. To what extent has inconsistent usage of verbs adversely affect pupils’ written and communication skills in primary schools?
4. What are the possible solutions to the factors associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils?

1.7   Hypotheses

         The following null (H_o) and (H_i) alternate hypotheses are formulated as follows:

H_o1: Inadequate teaching materials are not associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils.

H_i1: Inadequae teaching materials are associated with inconsistent usage of verbs among primary school pupils.

H_o2: Inconsistent usage of verbs does not adversely affect pupils’ written and communication skills in primary schools.

H_i2: Inconsistent usage of verbs adversely affect pupils’ written and communication skills in primary schools.

---

Pages:  74

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF

Chapters: 1-5

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References

ABSTRACT

The study examined the Language Variation in Chinua Achebe’s Novels: A Study Of A Man Of The People And Anthills Of The Savannah. To a remarkable degree, there is a nexus and interconnectedness in the linguistic, stylistic and ideological issues arising from both A man of the people and anthills of the savannah. This work therefore, has critically explored language variation in Achebe’s Novel with reference to A Man of the People and Anthills of Savannah This research employed the use of secondary data as it examined the interplay and familiarity in the linguistic features, stylistic orientations and lingua franca variations in the Two novels. It was discovered that Achebe made a blend of three modes of English language In Anthills of Savannah examining the journey of struggle by Ikem, the protagonist, distinguishing between words that are uttered in English and those uttered in the mother-tongue, using italics to represent words which represent English. In “A Man of the People” Achebe used an omniscient stande as characters in urban cities were made to speak in pidgin English. The research also set to establish whether language variations is a solution to making a point about class division in the society as Achebe gives Pidgin English a dignified status, Sociolinguistic profile of characters in Anthills of Savannah is confined to the types of languages used by the characters. This study also adopts formalism theory as its theoretical framework. Under formalism, these two novels portrays two social groups with their roles in the society amidst different ethical codes and presents it as hope for the future of African post-colonial ties. In general, the study comprises an attempt to draw into a framework of African literature, how western type of school have made English language in the Nigerian society, a second language as it is the language of colonization itself The researcher therefore recommends amongst other things that national policy on education be amended to accommodate means of achieving a workable language policy.

CHAPTER ONE

BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Language variation is central in sociolinguistics. The English Language Varies on individual, regional national and global levels the study of language variation guides language development activities for examples, when developing a writing system it is desirable to the largest number of speakers of the language.

Achebe’s A man of the people he shows that Nigerian pidgin should be regarded as both an independent language and as an effective means by which African writers can adopt and then alter the English language to make it their own. Nigerian pidgin as Lingua Franca.

In an attempt of justify his ideology, Achebe stylistically presented his novels Anthills of the savannah and A man of the people in three forms of English language to reflect his characters and his audience as well as his African setting. The language forms include standard English, pidgin and proverb.

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Chinua Achebe as a writer in a second language, the language of the Colonial Master for that matter fears that he may never write well enough to qualify as a literary artist.

Chinua Achebe uses language variation in all his novel, he divided the language in different social classes in the society. He uses standard English for the high class people like educated once in his novels i.e Beatrice use of language is standard English but sometime she code-switch to pidgin English due some circumstances or for Elewa who is classified as an uneducated person who do not speak English but pidgin. Chief Nanga always speak English and pidgin and Odili who is graduate but speak English and pidgin language.

Achebe uses special kind of language variation in order to represent the different social classes in the society like the educated and uneducated once. The problem of language limitation has received an attention disproportionate to other areas of the creative.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of the study is to explore the relationship between language and literature as used by Achebe and that language gives room for greater knowledge.

Specifically, this study has the objective to place/identify the classes of language as used by the different social classes in the society. Therefore, Achebe novels A man of the people and Anthills of the savannah is done in such a way that language is emphasized. This is to set a precedence for the revisitation of so called African texts and authors which people have become tired of hearing about.

Another purpose of the study is let us know about the language variation use in Achebe novel A man of the people and Anthills of the savannah how he classified the language, standard English, pidgin English and proverbs.

SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research work is very necessary and important. To the effect that it is to the benefit of student, critics and scholars interested in the study of intrce language use in the novels. It is also to the benefit in one way or the other  to scholar who are interested in the study of Chinua Achebe with special attention on the two selected novels of this study A man of the people and Anthills of the savannah. It is equally hoped that the students in the English department will benefit immensely in this study.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: FORMALISM THEORY

Formalism theory is school of literary criticism and literary theory having manily to do with structural purposes of a particular text a style or method in art, music, literature, science e.t.c that pay more attention to the rules and appearance of things than to inner meaning and peeling.

Achebe’s work records the first steps of newly independent African countries and the instability following the process of  independence. In A man of the people and Anthills of the savannah he portrays the two social groups which play a specially significant role in society: politicians and intellectuals. In this article we will see how Achebe characterizes them and stresses their different ethical codes, politicians, in spite of their power even if this means the persecution of dissenters. The latter are mainly middle class professionals and intellectuals fighting for their ideas of national reconstruction and political change sometimes paying with their lives but presented by narrators as the only hope for the future of African post-colonial so cities.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

For a long period of time after Biafra, Achebe did not write any long novels. An

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In the course of this study there is extensive use of secondary supplementary data obtained from different libraries, to start with review of textbooks and studies on the problem. Other supplementary information was obtained from materials such as journals and found online. 

LIMITATION OF STUDY

The constraints of carrying out this study included mainly finance to run around and acquire the necessary materials, time and scarcity of materials, as most people were un-co-operative and reluctant to allow space for use of their libraries.

CHAPTER CONCERNS

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPTER THREE

LANGUAGE VARIATION IN ANTHILLS OF THE SAVANNAH

CHAPTER FOUR

LANGUAGE VARIATION IN A MAN OF THE PEOPLE

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION.

---

Pages:  35

Category: Project

Format:  Word & PDF

Chapters: 1-5

Material contains Table of Content, Abstract and References